bitterwood

Names and Synonyms

Common Names

• bitterwood
• Paradise Tree

Scientific Names

Accepted name

Synonyms

• Simarouba opaca
• Simarouba amara var. opaca
• Simarouba amara var. puberula
• Quassia dioica
• Quassia alatifolia
• Pistacia americana

Regional and Traditional Names

Sources: Wikidata, Catalogue of Life

Taxonomical Classification

This plant belongs to the kingdom Plantae and the phylum Streptophyta, falling under the class Equisetopsida and subclass Magnoliidae. It is further classified within the order Sapindales and the family Simaroubaceae. Finally, it is categorized under the genus Simarouba.

Sources: The World Checklist of Vascular Plants (WCVP)

Distribution

This plant exhibits a broad geographical range across several key regions of North and Central America. Within Mexico, it can be found spanning from the central territories to the Gulf coast. Its presence also extends into the southwest regions of Mexico. Additionally, the species is distributed throughout the southeast portion of the country. Finally, its natural habitat reaches into Central America, specifically within Belize.

Sources: The World Checklist of Vascular Plants (WCVP)

Botanical Identification

Ecology

The ecology of Simarouba amara is characterized by a broad adaptability to diverse forest ecosystems and a significant altitudinal distribution. It is commonly found inhabiting various environments, including riparian forests (Floresta Ciliar or Galeria), terra firme forests, perennial seasonal forests (Floresta Estacional Perenifólia), semi-deciduous seasonal forests (Floresta Estacional Semi-decidual), ombrophilous/rainforests (Floresta Ombrófila), and restinga ecosystems. This species occupies a wide elevational gradient, starting from sea level (0 m AMSL) up to a maximum altitude of 1850 m AMSL, with a mean elevational range of approximately 200 m AMSL.

Elevational range max:

1850 m AMSL

Elevational range mean:

200 m AMSL

Elevational range min:

0 m AMSL

Habitat :

Floresta Ciliar ou Galeria, Floresta de Terra Firme, Floresta Estacional Perenifólia, Floresta Estacional Semidecidual, Floresta Ombrófila (= Floresta Pluvial), Restinga

Life history

The life history of Simarouba amara is characterized by its status as a perennial species, allowing it to maintain a stable presence within its ecosystem over many years. Throughout its extended lifespan, the plant exhibits an evergreen growth habit, ensuring that it retains its foliage and continues physiological processes without the seasonal loss of leaves typical of deciduous species. This combination of long-term survival and continuous greenery enables the plant to persist through various environmental cycles while maintaining a consistent photosynthetic capacity.

Deciduousness :

evergreen

Lifecycle :

perennial

Morphology

The morphology of Simarouba amara is characterized by its stature as a large, woody tree that exhibits a self-supporting growth form. This species is primarily terrestrial in its habitat, functioning as an independent organism without parasitic or epiphytic tendencies. Reaching significant dimensions, the plant typically attains a mean height of approximately 19.97 m, though it has the capacity to reach a maximum height of up to 40 m. Its structural development is defined by a robust, woody constitution, allowing it to maintain a stable, self-supporting presence within its ecosystem.

Aquatic :

terrestrial

Climber :

self-supporting

Epiphyte :

terrestrial

Growth form :

tree

Parasite :

independent

Plant height max:

40 m

Plant height mean:

19.97 m

Woodiness :

woody

Physiology

The physiology of Simarouba amara is characterized by a C3 photosynthetic pathway, which dictates its carbon fixation processes and metabolic efficiency. The plant exhibits a leaf dry matter content (LDMC) that is consistently measured at 401.4 mg/g, representing both its minimum and maximum recorded values, indicating a highly stable leaf mass per area. This leaf structure is associated with a mean Specific Leaf Area (SLA) of 80.689 cm²/g and a substantial mean leaf size of 849.102 cm², reflecting its specific strategies for light interception and resource management. Regarding its structural biomass, the plant maintains a mean stem specific density (SSD) of 380 mg/cm³. Furthermore, Simarouba amara does not function as a nitrogen fixer, relying instead on the available soil nitrogen for its nutritional requirements.

Leaf dry matter content (LDMC) mean:

401.4 mg/g

Leaf size mean:

849.102 cm²

Nitrogen fixer :

no

Photosynthetic pathway :

C3

Specific Leaf Area (SLA) mean:

80.689 cm²/g

Stem specific density (SSD) mean:

380 mg/cm³

Reproduction

The reproduction of Simarouba amara is characterized by the production of indehiscent fruits categorized as drupes. These fruits possess an average length of 1.9 cm and an average width of 0.9 cm. The seeds contained within these fruits exhibit a significant range of physical dimensions, with seed lengths varying from a minimum of 6 mm to a maximum of 30 mm. In terms of volume, the seeds range from a minimum of 220 mm³ to a maximum of 1400 mm³, with a calculated mean seed volume of 810 mm³. The mass of the seeds also shows variability, ranging from a minimum of 0.105 g to a maximum of 0.37 g, with a reported mean seed mass of 0.581375 g. Facilitating the spread of the species, Simarouba amara utilizes a zoochorous dispersal syndrome, relying on animals to transport its seeds to new locations.

Dehiscence :

indehiscent

Dispersal syndrome :

zoochorous

Fruit length mean:

1.9 cm

Fruit type :

drupe

Fruit width mean:

0.9 cm

Seed length max:

30 mm

Seed length min:

6 mm

Seed mass max:

0.37 g

Seed mass mean:

0.581375 g

Seed mass min:

0.105 g

Seed volume max:

1400 mm³

Seed volume mean:

810 mm³

Seed volume min:

220 mm³

Sources: Global Inventory of Floras and Traits (GIFT)

Plant Parts

Simarouba amara has 2 reported plant parts identified across 2 scientific publications and several other databases that are studied for medicinal purposes. The most consistently reported plant part include fruit, stem.

Fruit

1. Journal of ethnopharmacology

Stem

1. Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy

Chemicals

Simarouba amara has 14 reported phytochemicals identified across 2 scientific publications and several other databases. The most consistently reported chemicals include 2'-Acetylglaucarubinone, Glaucarubinone, 13,18-Dehydroglaucarubinone, 21,20-Anhydromelianone, AILANTHINONE.

2'-Acetylglaucarubinone

1. Dr. Duke
2. Journal of ethnopharmacology
3. Experientia

Glaucarubinone

1. Journal of ethnopharmacology
2. Experientia

13,18-Dehydroglaucarubinone

1. Experientia

21,20-Anhydromelianone

1. Dr. Duke

AILANTHINONE

1. Journal of ethnopharmacology

EO

1. Dr. Duke

Holacanthone

1. Journal of ethnopharmacology

MELIANONE

1. Dr. Duke

QUASSINOID

1. Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy

SIMAROLIDE

1. Dr. Duke

Activities

Simarouba amara has 33 reported activities identified across 2 scientific publications and several other databases. The most consistently reported activities include Anthelmintic, AntiHIV, Antibacterial, Anticancer, Anticariogenic.

Anthelmintic

1. Dr. Duke

AntiHIV

1. Dr. Duke

Antibacterial

1. Dr. Duke

Anticancer

1. Dr. Duke

Anticariogenic

1. Dr. Duke

Antidiarrheic

1. Dr. Duke

Antidysenteric

1. Dr. Duke

Antihepatotoxic

1. Dr. Duke

Antihypertensive

1. Dr. Duke

Antilipolytic

1. Dr. Duke

Conditions

Simarouba amara has 2 reported investigations on conditions identified across 2 scientific publications and several other databases. The most consistently reported conditions include Entamoeba histoLYtica, Plasmodium berghei.

Entamoeba histolytica

1. Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy

Plasmodium berghei

1. Journal of ethnopharmacology

Preparations

Simarouba amara has 1 reported preparations identified across 2 scientific publications and several other databases. The most consistently reported preparations include bark.

Bark

1. Journal of natural products