May apple

Names and Synonyms

Common Names

• Indian-apple
• May-apple
• wild mandrake
• Mayapple
• American-mandrake
• American Mandrake

Scientific Names

Accepted name

Synonyms

• Podophyllum peltatum f. deamii
• Podophyllum callicarpum
• Podophyllum montanum
• Podophyllum peltatum var. annulare
• Podophyllum peltatum f. biltmoreanum
• Podophyllum peltatum f. aphyllum
• Podophyllum peltatum f. callicarpum
• Anapodophyllum peltatum

Regional and Traditional Names

Sources: Wikidata, Catalogue of Life

Taxonomical Classification

This plant belongs to the kingdom Plantae and the phylum Streptophyta, falling under the class Equisetopsida and subclass Magnoliidae. Within the order Ranunculales, it is classified under the family Berberidaceae. Finally, it is identified by the genus Podophyllum.

Sources: The World Checklist of Vascular Plants (WCVP)

Distribution

This plant exhibits a broad geographical distribution spanning across North America and Europe. In North America, it is commonly found throughout Eastern Canada, specifically within the provinces of Ontario and Québec. Its presence extends into the North-Central United States, where it grows in states such as Illinois and Iowa. Beyond the American continent, the species can also be located in Middle Europe, particularly in Germany. This wide range demonstrates the plant's ability to adapt to various temperate environments across different hemispheres.

Sources: The World Checklist of Vascular Plants (WCVP)

Botanical Identification

Life history

The life history of Podophyllum peltatum is characterized by its status as a perennial herb, allowing it to persist in forest understories through multiple growing seasons. It typically emerges in early spring from an underground rhizome, which serves as a vital storage organ for nutrients, enabling the plant to re-emerge even after periods of dormancy. The plant follows a seasonal cycle where it produces large, single leaves and distinctive white flowers in the spring, followed by the development of a fleshy, red fruit in the summer. Because it is a perennial, it does not die after a single reproductive event; instead, it relies on both sexual reproduction through seed dispersal and asexual reproduction through rhizomatous spreading to expand its presence in its habitat. This perennial nature ensures its long-term survival and ability to compete within the shaded, moist environments it inhabits.

Lifecycle :

perennial

Morphology

The morphology of Podophyllum peltatum is characterized by its growth form as a non-woody herb and specifically a forb, which emerges from a rhizomatous root system. As a terrestrial species, it does not exhibit aquatic or semiaquatic tendencies, nor does it function as an epiphyte, instead maintaining an independent existence without parasitic behavior. The plant is entirely self-supporting in its structure, lacking any climbing, vine, or liana characteristics, and it does not possess any woody tissue, remaining consistently non-woody throughout its life cycle.

Aquatic :

terrestrial

Climber :

self-supporting

Epiphyte :

terrestrial

Growth form :

herb

Growth form :

forb

Parasite :

independent

Woodiness :

non-woody

Physiology

The physiology of Podophyllum peltatum is characterized by a specialized metabolic framework typical of many temperate forest perennials, most notably its reliance on the C3 photosynthetic pathway. As a C3 plant, it utilizes the Calvin cycle to fix atmospheric carbon dioxide directly through the enzyme RuBisCO, a process that is highly efficient in the cool, shaded, and moist environments where this species naturally thrives. This photosynthetic strategy allows the plant to maximize carbon assimilation under low-light conditions, though it makes the plant susceptible to photorespiration when temperatures rise or water becomes limited. Beyond its carbon fixation, the plant's physiological complexity is defined by its secondary metabolism, specifically the biosynthesis of complex lignans such as podophyllotoxin. These bioactive compounds are synthesized through complex enzymatic pathways within the plant tissues, serving as chemical defenses. The physiological rhythm of the plant is also dictated by strong seasonal phenology, involving a period of dormancy in winter and a rapid mobilization of stored carbohydrates from its rhizomatous root system to support spring foliage development and flowering.

Photosynthetic pathway :

C3

Reproduction

The reproduction of Podophyllum peltatum is characterized by a specific seasonal flowering cycle and specialized seed dispersal mechanisms. The flowering period typically begins in March and extends through May, though the exact timing can be variable depending on environmental conditions. Following pollination, the plant utilizes a zoochorous dispersal syndrome, meaning its seeds are dispersed by animals, which plays a crucial role in the movement and establishment of new individuals within its habitat.

Dispersal syndrome :

zoochorous

Flowering time :

Mar

Flowering time :

May

Sources: Global Inventory of Floras and Traits (GIFT)

Plant Parts

Podophyllum peltatum has 2 reported plant parts identified across 2 scientific publications and several other databases that are studied for medicinal purposes. The most consistently reported plant part include rhizome, root.

Rhizome

1. The Journal of biological chemistry

Root

1. Plants (Basel, Switzerland)

Chemicals

Podophyllum peltatum has 31 reported phytochemicals identified across 2 scientific publications and several other databases. The most consistently reported chemicals include podophyllotoxin, (-)-Matairesinol, Desoxypodophyllotoxin, alpha-Peltatin, beta-Peltatin.

podophyllotoxin

1. Dr. Duke
2. Journal of natural products
3. Phytochemistry
4. Protoplasma
5. Natural product research

(-)-Matairesinol

1. Phytochemistry
2. The Journal of biological chemistry

Desoxypodophyllotoxin

1. Dr. Duke
2. Journal of natural products

alpha-Peltatin

1. Dr. Duke
2. Journal of natural products

beta-Peltatin

1. Dr. Duke
2. Journal of natural products

etoposide

1. Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association
2. Adverse drug reactions and toxicological reviews

(+)-Lariciresinol

1. Phytochemistry

(+)-Pinoresinol

1. Phytochemistry

(-)-Pluviatolide

1. The Journal of biological chemistry

(-)-Podophyllotoxin

1. The Journal of biological chemistry

Activities

Podophyllum peltatum has 298 reported activities identified across 2 scientific publications and several other databases. The most consistently reported activities include Anticancer, Antiviral, Cytotoxic, (+)-Inotropic, 11B-HSD-Inhibitor.

Anticancer

1. Dr. Duke
2. The Journal of biological chemistry

Antiviral

1. Dr. Duke
2. The Journal of biological chemistry

Cytotoxic

1. Dr. Duke
2. Plants (Basel, Switzerland)

(+)-Inotropic

1. Dr. Duke

11B-HSD-Inhibitor

1. Dr. Duke

5-Lipoxygenase-Inhibitor

1. Dr. Duke

ACE-Inhibitor

1. Dr. Duke

ATPase-Inhibitor

1. Dr. Duke

Abortifacient

1. Dr. Duke

Adrenolytic

1. Dr. Duke

Medicinal Uses

Podophyllum peltatum has 7 reported medicinal uses identified across 2 scientific publications and several other databases. The most consistently reported uses include cancer, antiviral, breast cancer, cancers, measles.

Most Reported Uses

Preparations