evening primrose

Names and Synonyms

Common Names

• common evening-primrose
• hoary evening-primrose
• king's cureall
• yellow evening-primrose
• Lesser Evening Primrose
• German-rampion
• evening-primrose
• Evening primrose

Scientific Names

Accepted name

Synonyms

• Onagra media
• Oenothera victorinii f. rostanskii
• Oenothera communis proles biennis
• Oenothera gauroides var. brevicapsula
• Oenothera reynoldsii
• Oenothera rostanskii
• Oenothera biennis subsp. caeciarum
• Oenothera biennis subsp. centralis
• Oenothera biennis var. cantabrigiana
• Oenothera muricata var. rubricaulis
• Oenothera muricata var. rhodoneura
• Oenothera novae-scotiae var. serratifolia
• Oenothera brevispicata
• Oenothera tacikii
• Oenothera flaemingina
• Oenothera ersteinensis
• Oenothera furca
• Oenothera editicaulis
• Oenothera jueterbogensis
• Oenothera suaveolens
• Oenothera numismatica
• Oenothera biennis var. lutea
• Oenothera biennis var. muricata
• Oenothera biennis var. alba
• Brunyera biennis
• Oenothera muricata
• Oenothera rubricauloides
• Oenothera chicagoensis
• Oenothera wratislaviensis
• Oenothera latipetala
• Onagra chrysantha var. latifolia
• Oenothera biennis f. leptomeres
• Oenothera biennis f. nanella
• Oenothera nuda
• Oenothera biennis var. sulphurea
• Oenothera chicaginensis var. minutiflora
• Oenothera rubiella
• Onagra europaea
• Onagra biennis
• Oenothera stucchii
• Oenothera chicaginensis
• Oenothera chicaginensis var. bartlettii
• Oenothera compacta
• Oenothera cambrica var. impunctata
• Oenothera cambrica
• Oenothera casimiri
• Oenothera carinthiaca
• Onagra muricata
• Oenothera victorinii
• Oenothera tracyi
• Oenothera octolineata
• Oenothera purpurata
• Oenothera pycnocarpa
• Onosuris acuminata
• Onagra vulgaris
• Oenothera paralamarckiana
• Oenothera paradoxa
• Oenothera turoviensis
• Oenothera pellegrinii
• Oenothera mediomarchica
• Oenothera media
• Oenothera obscurifolia
• Oenothera marinellae
• Oenothera sesitensis
• Oenothera nissensis
• Oenothera nissensis var. fiedleri
• Oenothera macrosperma
• Oenothera stenomeres
• Oenothera ruderalis
• Oenothera shulliana
• Oenothera sackvillensis
• Oenothera sabulosa
• Oenothera pyramidiflora
• Oenothera punctulata
• Oenothera royfraseri
• Oenothera rubricaulis var. longistylis
• Oenothera rubricaulis var. dentifolia
• Oenothera rubricaulis
• Oenothera indivisa
• Oenothera grandifolia
• Oenothera inconspecta
• Oenothera glabra
• Oenothera pratincola
• Oenothera brevicapsula
• Oenothera jueterbogensis var. macrosperma
• Oenothera grandiflora var. tracyi
• Oenothera communis f. suaveolens
• Oenothera communis f. canescens
• Oenothera chicaginensis var. parviflora
• Oenothera pedemontana
• Oenothera muricata var. latifolia
• Oenothera pratincola var. numismatica
• Oenothera parviflora var. muricata
• Oenothera victorinii var. undulata
• Oenothera victorinii var. parviflora
• Oenothera victorinii var. intermedia
• Oenothera suaveolens var. latipetala
• Oenothera biennis var. leptomeres
• Oenothera biennis var. rubricaulis
• Oenothera biennis var. pycnocarpa
• Oenothera biennis var. angustifolia
• Oenothera biennis f. muricata
• Oenothera biennis subsp. suaveolens
• Oenothera biennis subsp. chicaginensis
• Oenothera biennis subf. latifolia
• Oenothera rubiennis
• Oenothera reynoldsii f. semialta
• Oenothera salicastrum
• Oenothera pycnocarpa var. parviflora
• Oenothera pycnocarpa var. cleistogama
• Oenothera sackvillensis var. albiviridis
• Oenothera sackvillensis var. royfraseri

Regional and Traditional Names

Sources: Wikidata, Catalogue of Life

Taxonomical Classification

This plant belongs to the kingdom Plantae within the phylum Streptophyta and the class Equisetopsida. As a member of the subclass Magnoliidae and the order Myrtaleales, it is classified under the family Onagraceae. Finally, it is identified by the genus Oenothera.

Sources: The World Checklist of Vascular Plants (WCVP)

Distribution

This plant, known as Oenothera biennis, exhibits a specific presence across several regions in Northern Europe. Its documented distribution includes the coastal and inland areas of Denmark. It can also be found growing within the northern landscapes of Finland. Furthermore, the species is established throughout the territories of Great Britain and Ireland. Finally, its range extends into the rugged environments of Norway.

Sources: The World Checklist of Vascular Plants (WCVP)

Botanical Identification

Ecology

The ecology of Oenotheara biennis is characterized by its adaptability to a wide variety of environments, primarily thriving in disturbed or open areas such as crop fields, riverbanks, roadsides, and sandy substrates. This species exhibits a broad vertical distribution, occupying an elevational range that extends from sea level (0 m AMSL) up to a maximum altitude of 1548 m AMSL. Its ability to colonize nutrient-poor or shifting soils, like sand and roadside margins, highlights its role as a pioneer species in various disturbed landscapes.

Elevational range max:

1548 m AMSL

Elevational range min:

0 m AMSL

Habitat :

crop fields, rivers, roadsides, sand

Genetics

The genetics of Oenothera biennis are characterized by a specific chromosomal constitution, most notably defined by a base chromosome number of $x = 7$. This fundamental genomic structure serves as the foundation for the species' hereditary complexity and plays a critical role in its evolutionary lineage within the Onagraceae family. The diploid number, which can vary depending on specific cytological studies of populations, is derived from this base number, influencing the plant's reproductive mechanisms and genetic diversity. These chromosomal arrangements are essential to the stable inheritance of phenotypic traits and underpin the mechanisms of recombination and segregation during meiosis in this species.

Chromosome number :

7

Life history

The life history of Oenothera biennis is characterized by a distinct biennial lifecycle, meaning it typically completes its biological processes over a two-year period. During its initial year of growth, the plant functions as a rosette-forming organism, establishing a robust root system and accumulating energy reserves. In its second year, it undergoes a rapid transition to reproductive maturity, producing an elongated flowering stalk to facilitate seed production. In terms of its structural survival strategies, the plant exhibits characteristics of both a hemicryptophyte and a therophyte. As a hemicryptophyte, it protects its perennating buds at or just below the soil surface, often under a layer of leaf litter or soil, which allows it to withstand seasonal environmental fluctuations. Simultaneously, its tendency to complete its life cycle through seed production and ephemeral growth patterns aligns it with the therophyte life form, ensuring the continuation of the species through highly efficient seed dispersal following the reproductive phase.

Life form :

hemicryptophyte

Life form :

therophyte

Lifecycle :

biennial

Morphology

The morphology of Oenothera biennis is characterized by its growth form as a non-woody herb, specifically classified as a forb. This terrestrial plant is independent in its growth, neither functioning as a parasite nor as an epiphyte. It exhibits a self-supporting structure with an erect shoot orientation, meaning it does not require climbing supports such as lianas or vines. In terms of stature, the plant displays significant variability in height, ranging from a minimum of 0.1 m to a maximum of 2 m, with an average plant height of approximately 1.079 m.

Aquatic :

terrestrial

Climber :

self-supporting

Epiphyte :

terrestrial

Growth form :

herb

Growth form :

forb

Parasite :

independent

Plant height max:

2 m

Plant height mean:

1.079 m

Plant height min:

0.1 m

Shoot orientation :

erect

Woodiness :

non-woody

Physiology

The physiology of Oenothera biennis is characterized by a C3 photosynthetic pathway and a non-carnivorous nutritional strategy. The plant's vegetative structure features elliptic-shaped leaves that exhibit significant morphological variation in size and dimension. Specifically, leaf length ranges from a minimum of 5 cm to a maximum of 30 cm, while the leaf width fluctuates between 2 cm and 5 cm, resulting in a mean leaf width of 4 cm. These dimensions contribute to a mean leaf size of approximately 142 cm². Furthermore, the plant demonstrates a mean Specific Leaf Area (SLA) of 157.01 cm²/g, reflecting its resource allocation and leaf mass distribution efficiency.

Carnivory :

non-carnivorous

Leaf form :

elliptic

Leaf length max:

30 cm

Leaf length min:

5 cm

Leaf size mean:

142 cm²

Leaf width max:

5 cm

Leaf width mean:

4 cm

Leaf width min:

2 cm

Photosynthetic pathway :

C3

Specific Leaf Area (SLA) mean:

157.01 cm²/g

Reproduction

The reproduction of Oenothera biennis is characterized by a complex flowering and fruiting cycle that relies on both biotic and abiotic processes. The flowering period typically begins in June and extends through September, producing yellow flowers that measure between 2 cm and 3 cm in length. These flowers utilize a biotic pollination syndrome, specifically attracting insects such as bees to facilitate fertilization, though self-fertilization is also present. As a monocarp, the plant undergoes a single reproductive event. Following successful pollination, the plant develops fruit in the form of a capsule, which is a dehiscent type. These capsules vary in size, with an average fruit length of 2.75 cm and a range spanning from 1 cm to a maximum of 4 cm. The seeds produced are small, with lengths ranging from 1.1 mm to 2 mm and a mean mass of approximately 0.00050984225 g (ranging from 2e-04 g to 7e-04 g). Seed dispersal is achieved through both anemochorous (wind-dispersed) and autochorous (self-dispersed) mechanisms, while asexual reproduction is notably absent in this species.

Dehiscence :

dehiscent

Dispersal syndrome :

anemochorous

Dispersal syndrome :

autochorous

Flower colour :

yellow

Flower length max:

3 cm

Flower length min:

2 cm

Flowering time :

Jun

Flowering time :

Sep

Fruit length max:

4 cm

Fruit length mean:

2.75 cm

Fruit length min:

1 cm

Fruit type :

capsule

Monocarpy :

monocarp

Pollination syndrome :

insect

Pollination syndrome :

bee

Pollination syndrome :

biotic

Reproduction asexual :

absent

Seed length max:

2 mm

Seed length min:

1.1 mm

Seed mass max:

7e-04 g

Seed mass mean:

0.00050984225 g

Seed mass min:

2e-04 g

Self fertilization :

present

Sources: Global Inventory of Floras and Traits (GIFT)

Plant Parts

Oenothera biennis has 3 reported plant parts identified across 4 scientific publications and several other databases that are studied for medicinal purposes. The most consistently reported plant part include seed, leaf, root.

Seed

1. Food & function
2. Molecules (Basel, Switzerland)

Leaf

1. Chemical & pharmaceutical bulletin

Root

1. Journal of ethnopharmacology

Chemicals

Oenothera biennis has 108 reported phytochemicals identified across 4 scientific publications and several other databases. The most consistently reported chemicals include gamma-Linolenic acid, Gallic acid, Evening primrose oil, linoleic acid, CATECHIN.

gamma-Linolenic acid

1. Dr. Duke
2. Zhongguo Zhong yao za zhi = Zhongguo zhongyao zazhi = China journal of Chinese materia medica
3. Phytotherapy research : PTR
4. Plant disease
5. Toxicology mechanisms and methods

Gallic acid

1. Dr. Duke
2. Journal of ethnopharmacology
3. Molecules (Basel, Switzerland)
4. Food & function

Evening primrose oil

1. European review for medical and pharmacological sciences
2. Medical hypotheses
3. Lipids

linoleic acid

1. Dr. Duke
2. Food & function
3. Journal of menopausal medicine

CATECHIN

1. Food research international (Ottawa, Ont.)
2. Molecules (Basel, Switzerland)

Linolic acid

1. Zhongguo Zhong yao za zhi = Zhongguo zhongyao zazhi = China journal of Chinese materia medica
2. Roczniki Panstwowego Zakladu Higieny

METHYL GALLATE

1. Molecules (Basel, Switzerland)
2. Food & function

Phytosterols

1. Dr. Duke
2. Food & function

oleic acid

1. Dr. Duke
2. Zhongguo Zhong yao za zhi = Zhongguo zhongyao zazhi = China journal of Chinese materia medica

palmitic acid

1. Dr. Duke
2. Zhongguo Zhong yao za zhi = Zhongguo zhongyao zazhi = China journal of Chinese materia medica

Activities

Oenothera biennis has 525 reported activities identified across 4 scientific publications and several other databases. The most consistently reported activities include Aldose-Reductase-Inhibitor, Antioxidant, 11B-HSD-Inhibitor, 5-Alpha-Reductase-Inhibitor, 5-Lipoxygenase-Inhibitor.

Aldose-Reductase-Inhibitor

1. Dr. Duke
2. Food chemistry

Antioxidant

1. Dr. Duke
2. Foods (Basel, Switzerland)

11B-HSD-Inhibitor

1. Dr. Duke

5-Alpha-Reductase-Inhibitor

1. Dr. Duke

5-Lipoxygenase-Inhibitor

1. Dr. Duke

ACE-Inhibitor

1. Dr. Duke

ATPase-Inhibitor

1. Dr. Duke

Abortifacient

1. Dr. Duke

Absorbent

1. Dr. Duke

Adjuvant

1. Dr. Duke

Medicinal Uses

Oenothera biennis has 22 reported medicinal uses identified across 4 scientific publications and several other databases. The most consistently reported uses include Multiple sclerosis, atopic dermatitis, cervical ripening, mastalgia, premenstrual syndrome.

Most Reported Uses

Preparations