apple-of-Peru

Names and Synonyms

Common Names

• apple-of-Peru
• shoo-fly plant
• Apple of Peru
• broadleaf-nightshade
• shooflyplant
• Rivabe
• shoo-fly

Scientific Names

Accepted name

Synonyms

• Nicandra physalodes var. violacea
• Atropa daturifolia
• Atropa physalodes
• Nicandra undulata
• Nicandra nana
• Nicandra violacea
• Nicandra parvimaculata
• Calydermos erosus
• Pentagonia physalodes
• Physalis spectabilis
• Physalis daturifolia
• Physalodes peruvianum
• Nicandra physalodes var. immaculata
• Physaloides physalodes
• Nicandra minor
• Nicandra macrocalyx
• Nicandra physalodes var. crispa
• Nicandra nebulosa
• Nicandra brevicorollata

Regional and Traditional Names

Sources: Wikidata, Catalogue of Life

Taxonomical Classification

This plant belongs to the kingdom Plantae and the phylum Streptophyta, falling under the class Equisetopsida and subclass Magnoliidae. Within the order Solanales and the family Solanaceae, it is specifically classified under the genus Nicandra.

Sources: The World Checklist of Vascular Plants (WCVP)

Distribution

This plant exhibits a specific distribution pattern across several regions of the European continent. In Northern Europe, its presence can be documented within the borders of Great Britain and Ireland. Moving into Middle Europe, the species is also found growing in Austria and Belgium. Furthermore, its range extends through the territories of Czechia and Slovakia. Collectively, these locations highlight the plant's ability to inhabit diverse environments across Northern and Middle Europe.

Sources: The World Checklist of Vascular Plants (WCVP)

Botanical Identification

Ecology

The ecology of Nicandra physalodes is characterized by its ability to colonize disturbed environments, specifically within anthropic areas (Área Antrópica) where human activity has modified the landscape. This species demonstrates a broad altitudinal tolerance, capable of thriving across a significant vertical gradient. Its elevational range extends from sea level (0 m AMSL) up to a maximum altitude of 2800 m AMSL, allowing it to occupy diverse ecological niches ranging from lowland disturbed sites to high-altitude montane environments.

Elevational range max:

2800 m AMSL

Elevational range min:

0 m AMSL

Habitat :

Área Antrópica

Life history

The life history of Nicandra physalodes is characterized by its classification as an annual plant, meaning it completes its entire developmental cycle—from germination to seed production—within a single growing season. As a therophyte, it survives the unfavorable seasons primarily in the form of seeds, which remain dormant until conditions are optimal for rapid growth. Throughout its active period, the plant exhibits a deciduous nature, shedding its foliage as it reaches the end of its life cycle. This life strategy allows it to colonize disturbed or open habitats efficiently, utilizing its transient existence to maximize reproductive output before the onset of senescence.

Deciduousness :

deciduous

Life form :

therophyte

Lifecycle :

annual

Morphology

The morphology of Nicandra physalodes is characterized by its growth form as a non-woody herb, specifically categorized as a forb. It is a terrestrial plant that functions as an independent organism, lacking any parasitic lifestyle. As a self-supporting species, it does not exhibit climbing habits such as lianas or vines, nor does it function as an epiphyte. The plant's stature is variable, with heights ranging from a minimum of 0.3 m to a maximum of 2 m, maintaining an average plant height of approximately 0.71875 m.

Aquatic :

terrestrial

Climber :

self-supporting

Epiphyte :

terrestrial

Growth form :

herb

Growth form :

forb

Parasite :

independent

Plant height max:

2 m

Plant height mean:

0.71875 m

Plant height min:

0.3 m

Woodiness :

non-woody

Physiology

The physiology of Nicandra physalodes is characterized by a C3 photosynthetic pathway, indicating its reliance on the standard carbon fixation process common to most temperate plants. The plant is non-carnivorous and does not function as a nitrogen fixer, meaning it must acquire essential nutrients directly from the soil rather than through symbiotic bacteria or prey capture. Its leaf morphology is predominantly elliptic in form, exhibiting significant variability in dimensions; leaf length typically averages 8 cm, ranging from a minimum of 4 cm to a maximum of 17 cm, while leaf width averages 5 cm, with a minimum of 1 cm and a maximum of 13 cm. This variation results in a mean leaf size of approximately 88.81875 cm². Furthermore, the plant maintains a mean Specific Leaf Area (SLA) of 256.15 cm²/g, reflecting its leaf mass per area and its strategy for optimizing light interception and gas exchange.

Carnivory :

non-carnivorous

Leaf form :

elliptic

Leaf length max:

17 cm

Leaf length mean:

8 cm

Leaf length min:

4 cm

Leaf size mean:

88.81875 cm²

Leaf width max:

13 cm

Leaf width mean:

5 cm

Leaf width min:

1 cm

Nitrogen fixer :

no

Photosynthetic pathway :

C3

Specific Leaf Area (SLA) mean:

256.15 cm²/g

Reproduction

The reproduction of Nicandra physalodes is primarily sexual, characterized by bisexual flowers that undergo biotic pollination. The pollination syndrome is driven by insects, specifically bees, which facilitate the transfer of pollen. The flowering period typically commences in July and continues through October. These blue flowers vary in length, ranging from a minimum of 1.05 cm to a maximum of 3.8 cm. Self-fertilization is noted to be absent, emphasizing the importance of external pollinators. Following successful fertilization, the plant produces a fleshy, indehiscent fruit classified as a berry, which is brown in color. The fruit dimensions range from a minimum width of 0.08 cm to a maximum of 0.12 cm, with a mean width of 0.2 cm. Dispersal is achieved through a zoochorous mechanism, specifically endozoochory, meaning the seeds are dispersed via the digestive tracts of animals. Each fruit is prolific, containing between 101 and 1000 seeds. The seeds themselves are quite small, with a mean mass of 0.00087 g (ranging from 0.00062 g to 0.00103 g), a mean length of 1.5 mm, and a consistent mean width of 1.8 mm. The seed volume is recorded at a mean of 0.8 mm³, with the minimum and maximum values also centered at this measurement. Asexual reproduction is absent in this species.

Dehiscence :

indehiscent

Dispersal syndrome :

zoochorous

Dispersal syndrome :

endozoochorous

Flower colour :

blue

Flower length max:

3.8 cm

Flower length min:

1.05 cm

Flowering time :

Jul

Flowering time :

Oct

Fruit colour :

brown

Fruit dryness :

fleshy

Fruit type :

berry

Fruit width max:

0.12 cm

Fruit width mean:

0.2 cm

Fruit width min:

0.08 cm

Pollination syndrome :

insect

Pollination syndrome :

bee

Pollination syndrome :

biotic

Reproduction asexual :

absent

Reproduction sexual :

bisexual

Seed length mean:

1.5 mm

Seed mass max:

0.00103 g

Seed mass mean:

0.00087 g

Seed mass min:

0.00062 g

Seed volume max:

0.8 mm³

Seed width mean:

1.8 mm

Seeds_per_fruit :

101-1000

Self fertilization :

absent

Sources: Global Inventory of Floras and Traits (GIFT)

Chemicals

Nicandra physalodes has 4 reported phytochemicals identified across 0 scientific publications and several other databases. The most consistently reported chemicals include Nicandrenone, Baicalin, Withanolides, withanolide A.

Nicandrenone

1. Natural product communications
2. Free radical biology & medicine

Baicalin

1. Free radical biology & medicine

Withanolides

1. Phytochemistry

withanolide A

1. Free radical biology & medicine

Conditions

Nicandra physalodes has 3 reported investigations on conditions identified across 0 scientific publications and several other databases. The most consistently reported conditions include lung inflammation, lung injury, pulmonary edema.

Lung inflammation

1. Free radical biology & medicine

Lung injury

1. Free radical biology & medicine

Pulmonary edema

1. Free radical biology & medicine