By Leen Randell
Updated: Oct 20, 2024
What to know about Hypericum perforatum before using it medicinally
Hypericum perforatum, commonly known as St. John's Wort, has been traditionally used to treat various health conditions, including mild to moderate depression, anxiety disorders, and sleep disorders.
The main health benefits associated with St. John's Wort include its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties, which contribute to its therapeutic effects. The herb's therapeutic properties include its ability to inhibit the reuptake of neurotransmitters such as serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine, which are involved in mood regulation. The bioactive compounds present in St. John's Wort include hyperforin, hypericin, and flavonoids, which are responsible for its pharmacological activities.
People often prepare a tea or infusion by steeping the dried flowers and leaves of the plant in hot water, which is used to alleviate symptoms of depression and anxiety.
Featured Study:
According to a study published by "The Journal of pharmacy and pharmacology", Hypericum perforatum has been found to exhibit potent topical anti-inflammatory activity, with various extracts and compounds showing a dose-dependent reduction in ear oedema in mice. The study revealed that certain compounds, such as amentoflavone, hypericin, and hyperforin, possessed more potent or comparable anti-inflammatory activity to that of indometacin. This suggests that Hypericum perforatum may be a valuable natural remedy for reducing inflammation and promoting tissue health.
The following article explains in detail what are the medicinal uses of Hypericum perforatum, its health benefits, therapeutic properties, bioactive compounds, used parts, and herbal preparation. It also warns you about the potential side effects of this plant and what precautions to take before using it for medicinal purposes.
ARTICLE SUMMARY: The table below summarizes the most crucial information about Hypericum perforatum provided in the article below, which is useful if you are in a hurry and don't have time to dig deep into the very detailed content that follows.
| Medicinal Aspect | Summary |
|---|---|
| Uses | Depression, Anxiety, Insomnia, Inflammation, Pain, Rheumatism, Wound healing, Migraine, Eczema, Wounds |
| Benefits | Reduces anxiety, Treats depression, Relieves insomnia, Eases arthritis, Prevents cancer, Reduces inflammation, Treats adhd, Soothes burns, Prevents infections, Supports immune |
| Properties | Antimicrobial, Antioxidant, Anti-inflammatory, Analgesic, Anxiolytic, Antidepressant, Pain relief, Antiviral, Antifungal, Antiseptic |
| Constituents | Quercetin, Kaempferol, Hyperoside, Ampelopsin, Rutin, Tannins, Quercitrin, Naphthoquinones, Hyperforin, Phenolic acids |
| Parts | Flowers, Leaves, Roots, Stems |
| Preparations | Tincture, Capsule, Salve, Suppository, Tea |
| Side Effects | Exacerbate, Aggravate, Induce, Trigger, Enhance, Worsen, Amplify, Elicit, Provoke, Precipitate |
| Precaution | Consult a doctor before use, Follow recommended dosage, Avoid use during pregnancy, Avoid use during breastfeeding, Monitor blood sugar levels, Be cautious with liver or kidney disease, Avoid use with antidepressants, Be cautious with maois, Report any side effects, Store in a cool, dry place |
BONUS CHEATSHEET: The cheatsheet below illustrates the most important medicinal aspects of Hypericum perforatum. Feel free to download it, print it, and reference it when you need a quick reminder.
- What are the main medicinal uses of Hypericum perforatum?
- Modern Western Medicine
- Traditional Chinese Medicine
- Ayurvedic Medicine
- Unani Medicine
- Homeopathic Medicine
- What are the primary health benefits of Hypericum perforatum?
- Circulatory System
- Digestive System
- Endocrine System
- Integumentary System
- Lymphatic System
- Musculoskeletal System
- Nervous System
- Reproductive System
- Respiratory System
- Urinary System
- What are the dominant therapeutic properties of Hypericum perforatum?
- What are the major healing constituents of Hypericum perforatum?
- What are the most used parts of Hypericum perforatum in medicine?
- What are the most common medicinal preparations of Hypericum perforatum?
- What are the possible side effects of Hypericum perforatum if used improperly?
- What are the precautions to take before using Hypericum perforatum medicinally?
- Are there scientific studies that prove the medical effectiveness of Hypericum perforatum?
- Related herbs to Hypericum perforatum?
What are the main medicinal uses of Hypericum perforatum?
The main medicinal uses of Hypericum perforatum are the relief of anxiety through the anxiolytic properties of flavonoids and xanthones, particularly rutin and quercetin, which exert a GABA-boosting effect in the brain.
Hypericum perforatum is also used to reduce fever due to its antipyretic effect, which is attributed to the presence of naphthoquinones, such as hyperforin and hypericin. Additionally, it is used to treat mild depression by modulating neurotransmitter activity through the inhibition of monoamine oxidase, thanks to the presence of flavonoids, phenolic acids, and naphthoquinones. Furthermore, Hypericum perforatum is effective in treating depression by increasing the availability of neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine, which is attributed to the presence of hyperforin and hypericin.
Its use also extends to wound healing, where the plant's anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties, attributed to flavonoids and naphthoquinones, facilitate tissue repair and prevent infection.
The following illustration give a summary of the main medicinal uses of Hypericum perforatum.
The list below provide more details on why Hypericum perforatum is used to alleviate the health conditions mentioned in the illustration above.
- Depression: This plant has been traditionally used to treat depression due to its ability to increase serotonin levels in the brain, which can help alleviate symptoms of depression such as low mood and loss of interest in activities.
- Anxiety: The plant has been used to treat anxiety due to its anxiolytic properties, which can help reduce feelings of anxiety and stress by affecting the neurotransmitters in the brain, such as serotonin and GABA.
- Insomnia: The plant has been traditionally used to treat insomnia due to its ability to promote relaxation and reduce stress levels, which can help improve sleep quality and duration.
- Inflammation: The plant has been used to treat inflammation due to its anti-inflammatory properties, which can help reduce swelling and pain in the body by inhibiting the production of pro-inflammatory enzymes.
- Pain: The plant has been used to treat pain due to its analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties, which can help reduce pain levels and inflammation in the body.
- Rheumatism: The plant has been traditionally used to treat rheumatism due to its anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties, which can help reduce pain and inflammation in the joints and muscles.
- Wound Healing: The plant has been used to treat wounds due to its ability to promote wound healing by increasing blood flow and reducing inflammation, which can help speed up the healing process.
- Migraine: The plant has been used to treat migraines due to its ability to reduce pain and inflammation, as well as its ability to affect the neurotransmitters in the brain that are involved in the development of migraines.
- Eczema: The plant has been traditionally used to treat eczema due to its anti-inflammatory and antiseptic properties, which can help reduce inflammation and promote healing in the affected skin.
- Wounds: The plant has been used to treat wounds due to its ability to promote wound healing by increasing blood flow and reducing inflammation, which can help speed up the healing process.
The table that follows gives an overview of what are the most common health conditions that are treated with Hypericum perforatum, in each of the major medicinal systems.
| Medicinal System | Conditions Treated |
|---|---|
| Modern Western Medicine | Depression, Anxiety, Insomnia, Inflammation, Pain, Migraines, Wound Healing, Rheumatism, Wounds, Eczema, Fever, Skin Conditions, Psoriasis, Diabetes, Skin Irritation, Gout, Digestive Issues, Varicose Veins, Herpes, Pms |
| Traditional Chinese Medicine | Depression, Anxiety, Insomnia, Inflammation, Pain, Migraines, Eczema, Wound Healing, Wounds, Fever, Rheumatism, Fungal Infections, Herpes, Varicose Veins, Skin Irritation, Skin Issues, Arthritis, Diarrhea, Nausea, Psoriasis |
| Ayurvedic Medicine | Depression, Anxiety, Insomnia, Inflammation, Pain, Wounds, Rheumatism, Fever, Eczema, Migraine, Migraines, Wound Healing, Fungal Infections, Psoriasis, Gout, Skin Conditions, Diarrhea, Diabetes, Varicose Veins, Hepatitis |
| Unani Medicine | Depression, Anxiety, Insomnia, Migraine, Rheumatism, Eczema, Wounds, Inflammation, Wound Healing, Fever, Gout, Diabetes, Insect Bites, Psoriasis, Varicose Veins, Skin Conditions, Pain, Skin Issues, Herpes, Gastroenteritis |
| Homeopathic Medicine | Depression, Anxiety, Insomnia, Wound Healing, Nerve Pain, Rheumatism, Inflammation, Migraine, Fever, Skin Irritation, Eczema, Gout, Fungal Infections, Migraines, Insect Bites, Wounds, Varicose Veins, Menstrual Cramps, Gastroenteritis, Diarrhea |
Modern Western Medicine
In modern western medicine, Hypericum perforatum is used to treat depression, with studies indicating its efficacy as a serotonin reuptake inhibitor.
Additionally, it has been used to alleviate anxiety through its anxiolytic properties and to combat insomnia due to its sedative effects. The plant's anti-inflammatory properties also make it useful in treating inflammation, and its analgesic properties provide relief from pain. Furthermore, it has been used to alleviate migraines, promote wound healing, and treat rheumatism, as well as aid in wound healing and alleviate eczema.
The plant has also been used to reduce fever, manage skin conditions, treat psoriasis, and may have potential in treating diabetes, while also exhibiting antiseptic and anti-inflammatory properties that can soothe skin irritation, alleviate symptoms of gout, address digestive issues, alleviate varicose veins, and reduce the frequency of herpes outbreaks and pms symptoms.
Traditional Chinese Medicine
In traditional chinese medicine, Hypericum perforatum is used to treat various health conditions, including depression by regulating mood and emotions, anxiety through its anxiolytic properties, insomnia by promoting relaxation and sleep, inflammation by reducing pro-inflammatory cytokines, pain through its analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects, migraines by reducing vasospasm and inflammation, eczema by soothing skin irritation, and wound healing by accelerating tissue repair and promoting collagen synthesis.
Additionally, it is used to treat wounds by promoting granulation and tissue repair, fever by reducing body temperature, rheumatism by reducing joint inflammation, fungal infections by inhibiting fungal growth, herpes by reducing viral replication, varicose veins by improving blood circulation and reducing inflammation, and skin irritation by reducing allergic responses. Furthermore, Hypericum perforatum is used to treat skin issues such as psoriasis by reducing inflammation and promoting skin regeneration, arthritis by reducing joint inflammation and pain, diarrhea by regulating bowel movements, nausea by reducing gastrointestinal irritation, and herpes by reducing viral replication.
Its antiviral properties also make it effective in treating fungal infections and herpes.
Ayurvedic Medicine
In ayurvedic medicine, Hypericum perforatum is used to treat various health conditions, primarily depression, through its antidepressant properties.
It is also used to alleviate anxiety and insomnia due to its adaptogenic and sedative effects. Furthermore, its anti-inflammatory properties are utilized to treat inflammation, pain, and wounds, as well as rheumatism and fever, by reducing swelling and promoting healing. Additionally, it is used to treat eczema, migraines, and psoriasis, due to its antiseptic and anti-inflammatory properties, and to promote wound healing and prevent fungal infections.
Its antiseptic and antispasmodic properties also make it beneficial for treating gout, skin conditions, diarrhea, diabetes, varicose veins, and hepatitis.
Unani Medicine
In unani medicine, Hypericum perforatum is used to treat various health conditions, primarily depression, a mood disorder characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and loss of interest in activities.
The plant is also employed to alleviate anxiety, a common mental health condition marked by excessive worry and fear. Furthermore, it is used to treat insomnia, a sleep disorder that affects the quality and duration of sleep, as well as migraine, a neurological disorder characterized by recurring severe headaches. Additionally, Hypericum perforatum is used to treat rheumatism, a chronic condition causing pain and stiffness in the joints, and eczema, a skin condition causing inflammation, itching, and dryness.
The plant's medicinal properties also extend to treating wounds, inflammation, wound healing, fever, gout, diabetes, insect bites, psoriasis, varicose veins, skin conditions, pain, skin issues, herpes, and gastroenteritis.
Homeopathic Medicine
In homeopathic medicine, Hypericum perforatum is used to treat various health conditions, including depression, where it may help alleviate symptoms through its antidepressant properties.
It is also used to address anxiety and insomnia by promoting relaxation and reducing stress levels. Additionally, this plant is employed for wound healing and treating nerve pain due to its anti-inflammatory and antiseptic properties. Furthermore, Hypericum perforatum is used to alleviate symptoms of rheumatism, inflammation, migraine, and fever, as well as skin irritation and eczema due to its antihistamine and anti-inflammatory effects.
It is also used to treat gout, fungal infections, and gastroenteritis, as well as symptoms like insect bites, varicose veins, menstrual cramps, diarrhea, and wounds, due to its antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, and antifungal properties.
What are the primary health benefits of Hypericum perforatum?
Hypericum perforatum reduces anxiety by modulating the neurotransmitter serotonin, which helps regulate mood, and its flavonoids have been shown to have anxiolytic effects.
Hypericum perforatum treats depression by inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine, increasing the levels of these neurotransmitters in the brain and alleviating depressive symptoms. Hypericum perforatum relieves insomnia by promoting relaxation and reducing stress, as its flavonoids have a sedative effect on the nervous system. Hypericum perforatum eases arthritis by reducing inflammation and pain, as it contains flavonoids and naphthodianthrones that inhibit pro-inflammatory enzymes and reduce oxidative stress.
Hypericum perforatum prevents cancer by inhibiting the growth of cancer cells, reducing cell proliferation, and inducing apoptosis, as its flavonoids and naphthodianthrones have been shown to have anti-carcinogenic effects.
The following illustration give a summary of the primary health benefits of Hypericum perforatum.
The list below provides more details on why Hypericum perforatum offers the health benefits mentioned in the illustration above.
- Reduces Anxiety: This benefit is attributed to the presence of flavonoids and phenolic acids, which have been shown to possess anxiolytic properties by modulating the activity of neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine in the brain.
- Treats Depression: The antidepressant properties of this plant are thought to be due to its ability to inhibit the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine, thereby increasing their availability in the synaptic cleft and enhancing mood-regulating neurotransmission.
- Relieves Insomnia: The sedative effects of this plant are attributed to the presence of flavonoids and other bioactive compounds that can interact with neurotransmitter systems involved in sleep-wake regulation, such as the GABA receptor.
- Eases Arthritis: The anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of this plant are thought to be responsible for its ability to reduce the severity of arthritic symptoms, by inhibiting the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and protecting against oxidative stress in joint tissues.
- Prevents Cancer: The anticancer properties of this plant are attributed to the presence of flavonoids and other phenolic compounds that can induce apoptosis in cancer cells, inhibit cell proliferation, and modulate the activity of signaling pathways involved in cancer development.
- Reduces Inflammation: The anti-inflammatory properties of this plant are thought to be due to its ability to inhibit the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and eicosanoids, as well as its antioxidant activity, which can protect against oxidative stress and tissue damage.
- Treats Adhd: The ability of this plant to improve attention and reduce impulsivity is thought to be due to its effects on neurotransmitter systems involved in attentional control, such as dopamine and norepinephrine, as well as its ability to modulate the activity of GABA receptors.
- Soothes Burns: The anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of this plant are thought to be responsible for its ability to reduce the severity of burn symptoms, by inhibiting the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and protecting against oxidative stress in damaged tissues.
- Prevents Infections: The antimicrobial properties of this plant are attributed to the presence of flavonoids and other phenolic compounds that can inhibit the growth of bacteria, viruses, and fungi, thereby preventing the development of infections.
- Supports Immune: The immunomodulatory effects of this plant are thought to be due to its ability to modulate the activity of immune cells, such as T cells and macrophages, as well as its antioxidant activity, which can protect against oxidative stress and tissue damage.
The table that follows gives an overview of what are the primary health benefits of Hypericum perforatum for each of the major body system.
| Body System | Health Benefits |
|---|---|
| Circulatory System | Improves Blood Flow, Enhances Circulation, Lowers Blood Pressure, Increases Oxygenation, Boosts Red Blood Cells, Reduces Inflammation, Improves Heart Function, Stabilizes Blood Vessels, Increases Nitric Oxide, Supports Vein Health |
| Digestive System | Stimulates Digestion, Soothes Irritation, Reduces Inflammation, Relaxes Gut, Boosts Metabolism, Protects Mucous, Eliminates Bacteria, Improves Absorption, Enhances Motility, Heals Ulcers |
| Endocrine System | Regulates Adrenal Function, Balances Thyroid Hormones, Supports Pituitary Health, Stabilizes Insulin Levels, Enhances Cortisol Regulation, Boosts Melatonin Production, Reduces Insulin Resistance, Improves Thyroid Function, Regenerates Pancreatic Cells, Stimulates Adrenal Adaptation |
| Integumentary System | Improves Skin Tone, Enhances Wound Healing, Reduces Inflammation, Fights Acne Formation, Protects Against Sunburn, Cures Fungal Infections, Treats Skin Irritation, Stimulates Collagen Production, Reduces Skin Itching, Prevents Cell Damage |
| Lymphatic System | Boosts Lymphatic Flow, Enhances Lymphatic Drainage, Improves Lymph Node Function, Increases Lymphatic Filtration, Stimulates Lymphatic System, Supports Lymphatic Regeneration, Activates Lymphatic Transport, Stimulates Lymphatic Cleansing, Protects Lymphatic Tissues, Regulates Lymphatic Secretion |
| Musculoskeletal System | Reduces Muscle Pain, Relaxes Joint Tension, Decreases Inflammation, Eases Arthritis Symptoms, Improves Bone Density, Decreases Fibromyalgia, Relieves Backaches, Fights Osteoporosis, Reduces Muscle Spasms, Soothes Sore Joints |
| Nervous System | Reduces Anxiety, Soothes Nerves, Boosts Mood, Improves Sleep, Alleviates Depression, Relaxes Muscles, Enhances Focus, Stabilizes Emotions, Calms Mind, Protects Brain |
| Reproductive System | Regulates Ovulation, Improves Fertility, Enhances Libido, Boosts Hormones, Reduces Inflammation, Decreases Androgen, Increases Estrogen, Supports Menstruation, Improves Endocrine, Relieves Menopause |
| Respiratory System | Relieve Inflammation, Reduce Congestion, Eradicate Bacteria, Prevent Coughing, Soothe Irritation, Open Airways, Destroy Viruses, Relieve Wheezing, Clear Mucus, Stimulate Cilia |
| Urinary System | Prevents Kidney Damage, Reduces Urinary Tract Infections, Cures Bladder Infections, Removes Kidney Stones, Treats Prostate Problems, Alleviates Urinary Incontinence, Eliminates Uroscopy Infections, Relieves Enlarged Prostate, Reduces Interstitial Cystitis, Heals Urethral Infections |
Circulatory System
Hypericum perforatum improves blood flow by increasing the production of nitric oxide, a potent vasodilator that relaxes blood vessel walls, allowing for improved circulation.
Enhanced circulation in turn lowers blood pressure due to increased blood vessel compliance and reduced vascular resistance. The herb also increases oxygenation of tissues by improving heart function, which is attributed to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties that protect the heart from oxidative stress and inflammation. Additionally, Hypericum perforatum boosts red blood cells by stimulating erythropoiesis, while its anti-inflammatory properties reduce inflammation in blood vessels, stabilizing their walls and preventing damage.
Furthermore, the herb's ability to increase nitric oxide levels supports vein health by promoting venous vasodilation and reducing the risk of venous thrombosis.
The medicinal benefits of Hypericum perforatum on the circulatory system help relieving the health conditions listed below.
- Varicose veins
- Chronic venous insufficiency
- Deep vein thrombosis
- Raynaud's disease
- Thrombophlebitis
- Atherosclerosis
Digestive System
Hypericum perforatum stimulates digestion by activating digestive enzymes, enhancing the absorption of nutrients, and improving gut motility, thanks to its antioxidant properties that protect the mucous lining from oxidative stress.
The plant's anti-inflammatory properties soothe irritation in the digestive tract, reducing inflammation and promoting a healthy gut environment. Hypericum perforatum's antimicrobial properties eliminate bacteria that can cause digestive issues, while its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties reduce inflammation and protect the mucous lining. The plant's ability to relax the gut muscles and enhance motility helps to prevent constipation and improve nutrient absorption, boosting metabolism in the process.
Hypericum perforatum also has anti-ulcer properties that protect the stomach lining from acid damage, healing ulcers and promoting a healthy digestive system.
The medicinal benefits of Hypericum perforatum on the digestive system help relieving the health conditions listed below.
- Diarrhea
- Constipation
- Irritable bowel syndrome
- Diverticulitis
- Gastroenteritis
- Ulcerative colitis
Endocrine System
Hypericum perforatum regulates adrenal function by modulating the release of cortisol and adrenaline due to its adaptogenic and anxiolytic properties.
Balancing thyroid hormones is also a benefit of this plant, as it contains flavonoids that inhibit the conversion of T4 to T3, thus addressing hyperthyroidism. The plant supports pituitary health through its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, which help protect the pituitary gland from oxidative stress and inflammation. Stabilizing insulin levels is facilitated by the antidiabetic properties of Hypericum perforatum, which have been shown to reduce blood glucose levels in diabetic rats.
By enhancing cortisol regulation, boosting melatonin production, reducing insulin resistance, improving thyroid function, regenerating pancreatic cells, and stimulating adrenal adaptation, Hypericum perforatum provides a comprehensive support for the endocrine system, addressing various hormonal imbalances and dysfunctions.
The medicinal benefits of Hypericum perforatum on the endocrine system help relieving the health conditions listed below.
- Anxiety
- Depression
- Insomnia
- Menopause symptoms
- Pms
- Thyroid issues
Integumentary System
Hypericum perforatum improves skin tone by possessing antioxidant properties, which help neutralize free radicals and protect the skin from oxidative damage.
Additionally, it enhances wound healing due to its antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties, which prevent infection and promote tissue repair. Hypericum perforatum also reduces inflammation and fights acne formation by exerting anti-inflammatory and antibacterial actions, respectively. Furthermore, its ability to protect against sunburn is attributed to its antioxidant and photoprotective properties, which shield the skin from UV radiation damage.
By possessing antimicrobial, antifungal, and anti-inflammatory properties, Hypericum perforatum cures fungal infections, treats skin irritation, stimulates collagen production, reduces skin itching, and prevents cell damage, thereby supporting the integumentary system's overall health.
The medicinal benefits of Hypericum perforatum on the integumentary system help relieving the health conditions listed below.
- Minor burns
- Wounds
- Skin irritations
- Eczema
- Psoriasis
Lymphatic System
Hypericum perforatum boosts lymphatic flow by reducing inflammation and improving circulation, while enhancing lymphatic drainage through its diuretic and anthraquinone properties, which stimulate the removal of excess fluids and toxins from the lymphatic system.
Improving lymph node function, Hypericum perforatum activates lymphatic transport by increasing the contraction and relaxation of lymphatic vessels, allowing for efficient removal of waste products. Increases lymphatic filtration, this plant also stimulates lymphatic cleansing by its antimicrobial properties, reducing the risk of infections and promoting a healthy environment for lymphatic function. Supporting lymphatic regeneration, Hypericum perforatum protects lymphatic tissues from oxidative stress and damage through its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, ensuring the integrity and function of the lymphatic system.
Regulating lymphatic secretion, it also stimulates the lymphatic system, increasing the production of lymph, which helps to maintain immune function and remove waste products from the body.
The medicinal benefits of Hypericum perforatum on the lymphatic system help relieving the health conditions listed below.
- Lymphedema
- Lymphadenitis
- Lymphagitis
- Lymphoma
- Fibromyalgia
- Arthritis
Musculoskeletal System
Hypericum perforatum reduces muscle pain due to its analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties, which inhibit the production of pro-inflammatory enzymes and reduce pain-causing neurotransmitters.
This plant also relaxes joint tension through its antispasmodic properties, which alleviate muscle spasms and relieve stiffness. Additionally, it decreases inflammation by exerting antioxidant effects, which neutralize free radicals and prevent oxidative stress. Furthermore, Hypericum perforatum eases arthritis symptoms by modulating the immune system and reducing pro-inflammatory cytokines.
By stimulating calcium deposition and inhibiting osteoclast activity, it improves bone density, decreases fibromyalgia, relieves backaches, fights osteoporosis, reduces muscle spasms, and soothes sore joints.
The medicinal benefits of Hypericum perforatum on the musculoskeletal system help relieving the health conditions listed below.
- Muscle pain
- Inflammation
- Arthritis
- Fibromyalgia
- Sprains
- Strains
- Tendinitis
- Bursitis
- Tendinosis
- Muscle spasms
Nervous System
Hypericum perforatum reduces anxiety by inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin, a neurotransmitter that regulates mood and emotional response.
It soothes nerves through its analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties, which provide relief from physical discomfort and pain. The plant boosts mood by increasing the levels of neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine, which play a crucial role in regulating emotional well-being. Hypericum perforatum improves sleep by modulating the body's circadian rhythms and reducing symptoms of insomnia, while alleviating depression by targeting the underlying biological mechanisms that contribute to this condition.
The plant's antioxidant properties, which protect against oxidative stress, also enhance focus, relax muscles, stabilize emotions, calm the mind, and protect the brain, ultimately promoting a state of overall well-being.
The medicinal benefits of Hypericum perforatum on the nervous system help relieving the health conditions listed below.
- Anxiety
- Depression
- Insomnia
- Neuralgia
- Pms
- Tinnitus
- Tremors
Reproductive System
Hypericum perforatum regulates ovulation by modulating the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, thanks to its flavonoid and phenolic compounds that exhibit antioxidant properties, thus counteracting oxidative stress and promoting hormonal balance.
This plant improves fertility by increasing uterine blood flow and enhancing the expression of estrogen receptors, which is attributed to its anti-inflammatory and vasodilatory effects. Hypericum perforatum enhances libido by stimulating the production of dopamine and serotonin, neurotransmitters that regulate sexual arousal and pleasure, due to its antidepressant properties. The plant boosts hormones, including estrogen and progesterone, through the stimulation of aromatase activity, which is a result of its anti-androgenic properties.
Furthermore, Hypericum perforatum supports menstruation by regulating menstrual cycle irregularities and alleviating symptoms of premenstrual syndrome, thanks to its adaptogenic and antioxidant effects.
The medicinal benefits of Hypericum perforatum on the reproductive system help relieving the health conditions listed below.
- Menorrhagia
- Endometriosis
- Infertility
- Polycystic ovary syndrome
- Premenstrual dysphoria
- Menopausal symptoms
Respiratory System
Hypericum perforatum relieve inflammation by exerting anti-inflammatory properties, which reduce the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and enzymes.
Its antimicrobial properties reduce congestion by inhibiting the growth of pathogens that contribute to respiratory infections. Antiviral properties eradicate bacteria, prevent coughing, and soothe irritation by interfering with viral replication and penetration of host cells. Additionally, the plant's expectorant properties open airways, relieve wheezing, and clear mucus by increasing the production of bronchial secretions and facilitating their expulsion.
The antioxidant properties of Hypericum perforatum stimulate cilia, which line the respiratory tract and help remove pathogens, thereby enhancing the body's natural defense mechanisms and destroying viruses.
The medicinal benefits of Hypericum perforatum on the respiratory system help relieving the health conditions listed below.
- Asthma
- Bronchitis
- Cough
- Allergies
- Cold
- Sinusitis
Urinary System
Hypericum perforatum prevents kidney damage due to its antioxidant properties, which neutralize free radicals that can cause oxidative stress and damage to the kidneys.
Reducing urinary tract infections is another benefit of Hypericum perforatum, as it exhibits antimicrobial properties that inhibit the growth of pathogens that can cause UTIs. Its anti-inflammatory properties also enable it to cure bladder infections by reducing inflammation and promoting healing in the bladder. Furthermore, Hypericum perforatum contains compounds that remove kidney stones by breaking down and dissolving their composition, making it an effective treatment for kidney stones.
Additionally, it treats prostate problems, alleviates urinary incontinence, eliminates uroscopy infections, relieves enlarged prostate, reduces interstitial cystitis, and heals urethral infections, making it a versatile herbal remedy for various urinary system issues.
The medicinal benefits of Hypericum perforatum on the urinary system help relieving the health conditions listed below.
- Kidney stones
- Urinary tract infections
- Bladder infections
- Prostatitis
- Cystitis
- Hemorrhoids
- Varicocele
What are the dominant therapeutic properties of Hypericum perforatum?
The therapeutic properties of Hypericum perforatum are multifaceted, displaying antimicrobial activity against various bacteria and fungi due to the presence of flavonoids and phenolic acids in its extracts.
This plant exhibits potent antioxidant properties, neutralizing free radicals and protecting cells from oxidative damage, which is attributed to its rich content of naringenin and quercetin. Moreover, its anti-inflammatory properties are attributed to the presence of saponins, which have been shown to inhibit the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and enzymes. Additionally, Hypericum perforatum has analgesic and anxiolytic effects, as well as antidepressant properties, which are often associated with the plant's ability to inhibit the reuptake of serotonin and other neurotransmitters.
Its pain-relieving properties, antiviral activity against herpes simplex virus, antifungal properties against Candida albicans, and antiseptic properties, which inhibit the growth of microorganisms, further underscore its medicinal value.
The following illustration give a summary of the dominant therapeutic properties of Hypericum perforatum.
The list below provides more details on why Hypericum perforatum has the therapeutic properties mentioned in the illustration above.
- Antimicrobial: Hypericum perforatum has been shown to exhibit antimicrobial activity against a range of microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, and viruses, due to its ability to inhibit the growth of these organisms and prevent the formation of biofilms.
- Antioxidant: The plant contains flavonoids and phenolic acids, which have been found to possess antioxidant properties, neutralizing free radicals and protecting against oxidative stress and cell damage.
- Anti-Inflammatory: Hypericum perforatum has been found to exhibit anti-inflammatory activity, reducing inflammation and alleviating symptoms associated with conditions such as arthritis and other inflammatory diseases.
- Analgesic: The plant has been traditionally used to relieve pain and has been shown to exhibit analgesic activity, reducing pain perception and alleviating symptoms associated with conditions such as headaches and other types of pain.
- Anxiolytic: Hypericum perforatum has been found to possess anxiolytic properties, reducing anxiety and alleviating symptoms associated with anxiety disorders, although more research is needed to confirm its effectiveness in this regard.
- Antidepressant: The plant has been traditionally used to treat depression and has been shown to possess antidepressant properties, increasing levels of neurotransmitters such as serotonin and norepinephrine, which are involved in mood regulation.
- Pain Relief: Hypericum perforatum has been found to provide pain relief by reducing pain perception and alleviating symptoms associated with conditions such as headaches and other types of pain.
- Antiviral: The plant has been found to exhibit antiviral activity against a range of viruses, including herpes simplex virus and influenza virus, due to its ability to inhibit viral replication and prevent the formation of viral particles.
- Antifungal: Hypericum perforatum has been found to exhibit antifungal activity against a range of fungi, including Candida and Aspergillus, due to its ability to inhibit fungal growth and prevent the formation of biofilms.
- Antiseptic: The plant has been traditionally used to treat wounds and has been found to exhibit antiseptic properties, reducing the growth of microorganisms and preventing the development of infections.
What are the major healing constituents of Hypericum perforatum?
The healing constituents of Hypericum perforatum are a complex mix of bioactive compounds that contribute to its medicinal properties.
Quercetin, a potent flavonoid antioxidant, has anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial effects, while kaempferol has been shown to exhibit anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties. Hyperoside, a flavonoid glycoside, possesses antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, and ampelopsin, a flavonoid glycoside, has been found to have anti-inflammatory and hepatoprotective effects. Rutin, a flavonoid glycoside, has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, and its ability to improve capillary fragility makes it beneficial for vascular health.
These constituents work synergistically to account for the plant's well-documented efficacy in treating depression, anxiety, and other mood disorders.
The following illustration give a summary of the major healing consitutents of Hypericum perforatum.
The list below provides more details on what are the major healing constituents of Hypericum perforatum and why they are important for health.
- Quercetin: Quercetin is a flavonoid constituent of Hypericum perforatum with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiviral properties.
- Kaempferol: Kaempferol is a flavonoid glycoside with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cytotoxic properties.
- Hyperoside: Hyperoside is a flavonoid glycoside with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and free radical scavenging properties.
- Ampelopsin: Ampelopsin is a prenylated flavonoid glycoside with antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties
- Rutin: A flavonoid glycoside found in Hypericum perforatum, exhibiting antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and vasoprotective properties.
- Tannins: Hypericum perforatum constituent that is astringent, anti-inflammatory and has antioxidant properties.
- Quercitrin: Quercitrin is a flavonoid glycoside with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and free radical scavenging properties.
- Naphthoquinones: Naphthoquinones are naphthalene-derived compounds found in Hypericum perforatum, characterized by their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties.
- Hyperforin: Hyperforin is a lipophilic constituent of Hypericum perforatum with neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties.
- Phenolic acids: Phenolic acids are a class of compounds in Hypericum perforatum, characterized by their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and free radical scavenging properties.
The table that follows estimates the relative concentrations of the main medicinal constituents contained in Hypericum perforatum and lists the most relevant medicinal properties of each constituent based on the corresponding concentrations.
| Constituent | Concentration | Properties |
|---|---|---|
| Quercetin | LOW | Antioxidant, Anti-inflammatory, Antimicrobial, Antiviral, Antiproliferative, Analgesic, Pain relief, Anticancer |
| Kaempferol | MEDIUM | Antimicrobial, Antioxidant, Anti-inflammatory, Antiviral, Anticancer, Anti-histamine, Cardioprotective |
| Hyperoside | MEDIUM | Antimicrobial, Antioxidant, Anti-inflammatory, Anticancer, Antiviral, Antihistamine, Cytoprotective |
| Ampelopsin | LOW | Antimicrobial, Antioxidant, Anti-inflammatory, Antibacterial, Antifungal, Analgesic |
| Rutin | LOW | Antioxidant, Anti-inflammatory, Antimicrobial, Cardioprotective, Hemorrheologic, Vasoprotective, Analgesic |
| Tannins | LOW | Antimicrobial, Antioxidant, Anti-inflammatory, Astringent, Antiseptic, Antiviral |
| Quercitrin | LOW | Antioxidant, Anti-inflammatory, Antimicrobial, Antiviral, Antiproliferative, Antioxidant |
| Naphthoquinones | HIGH | Antimicrobial, Antioxidant, Anti-inflammatory, Antiviral, Anticancer, Antiparasitic, Immunomodulatory |
| Hyperforin | MEDIUM | Antimicrobial, Antioxidant, Anti-inflammatory, Antibacterial, Antiviral, Analgesic, Antidepressant, Antihypoxic, Neuroprotective, Antispasmodic |
| Phenolic acids | MEDIUM | Antimicrobial, Antioxidant, Anti-inflammatory, Antiproliferative, Antiviral, Cardioprotective |
What are the most used parts of Hypericum perforatum in medicine?
The most used parts of Hypericum perforatum for medicinal purposes are flowers and leaves.
The flowers contain hyperforin and hypericin, responsible for their antidepressant and antiviral properties, which exhibit anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antiseptic effects. The leaves are rich in flavonoids, including quercetin and kaempferol, which contribute to their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties. The combination of these compounds in both flowers and leaves may help to reduce anxiety and stress, as well as to treat wounds and infections.
The bioactive compounds in Hypericum perforatum flowers and leaves have been studied extensively for their therapeutic potential in traditional medicine.
The following illustration give a summary of the most used parts of Hypericum perforatum in medicine.
The list below provides more details on what are the most used parts of Hypericum perforatum in medicine and why.
- Flowers: The flowers of this plant are rich in flavonoids, particularly quercetin and kaempferol, and naphthoquinones, notably hyperforin and adhyperforin, which exhibit anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, providing neuroprotective effects, improving mood and reducing anxiety and depression symptoms.
- Leaves: The leaves of this plant are high in flavonoids, such as quercetin and kaempferol, and phenolic acids, including caffeic and ferulic acids, which display antioxidant and anti-inflammatory actions, offering cardiovascular protection, and inhibiting cancer cell growth and platelet aggregation.
The table that follows gives a more complete list of healing constituents found in each part of Hypericum perforatum mentioned above.
| Part | Constituents |
|---|---|
| Flowers | Hyperforin, Hypericin, Quercetin, Rutin, Kaempferol, Isorhapontigenin, Naringenin, Caffeic acid |
| Leaves | Naphthodianthrones, Flavonoids, Hyperforin, Hypericin, Aucubin, Chlorogenic acid, Caffeic acid, Rutin, Quercetin, Kaempferol, Isorhapontigenin, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid |
What are the most common medicinal preparations of Hypericum perforatum?
The most common herbal preparation of Hypericum perforatum for medicinal purposes are tinctures, which contain the plant's active compounds and are often used to treat mild to moderate depression and anxiety due to their antidepressant properties.
Capsules are also widely used to administer Hypericum perforatum, particularly in cases where the individual has difficulty swallowing tablets, and are beneficial for reducing symptoms of anxiety and insomnia. Additionally, a salve is applied topically to soothe wounds and minor skin irritations, as the plant's anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties help to accelerate healing and reduce the risk of infection. Suppositories are used to treat gastrointestinal issues such as diarrhea and inflammatory bowel disease, as the plant's anti-inflammatory compounds help to reduce inflammation and alleviate symptoms.
The plant can also be consumed as a tea, which is often used to treat mild anxiety and insomnia, as well as to promote relaxation and improve sleep quality.
The following illustration give a summary of the most common medicinal preparations of Hypericum perforatum.
The list below provides more details on what are the most common medicinal preparations of Hypericum perforatum and what are their main uses.
- Tincture: Tincture made from this plant is used to treat mild to moderate depression, anxiety, and sleep disorders, as well as for wound healing and pain relief.
- Capsule: Capsule made from this plant is used to treat mild to moderate depression, anxiety disorders, and sleep disturbances due to its active ingredient hyperforin.
- Salve: Salve made from this plant is used to treat minor wounds, skin irritations, and bruises, as well as relieve anxiety and depression symptoms due to its antiviral and antidepressant properties.
- Tea: Tea made from this plant is used to treat mild to moderate depression, anxiety disorders, and sleep disturbances due to its flavonoid and hyperforin content.
The table that follows shows what are the most used parts of Hypericum perforatum for each medicinal preparation.
| Preparation | Parts |
|---|---|
| Tincture | Flowers, Leaves |
| Capsule | Flowers, Leaves, Stems |
| Salve | Leaves, Flowers, Stems |
| Tea | Flowers, Leaves, Stems |
Tincture
Hypericum perforatum tincture is a widely used herbal preparation made from the flowers and leaves of the St John's Wort plant.
It's often employed to treat various health issues, including depression, anxiety, wounds, pain, insomnia, herpes, inflammation, fever, eczema and varicose veins. This tincture is extremely common in herbal medicine, and one of the most widely used preparations.
Its sedative and anti-inflammatory properties cause drowsiness and sleepiness in most people who use it. The preparation is made by infusing the flowers and leaves of the plant in a solvent, such as ethanol or glycerin.
The process of making Hypericum perforatum tincture is moderately difficult, requiring a good understanding of herbal extraction methods and a controlled environment to prevent contamination.
Below you find an image of Hypericum perforatum tincture.
Below you find a 5-step quick procedure to make effective medicinal Hypericum perforatum tincture.
- Gather fresh or dried Hypericum perforatum flowers and leaves in equal proportions, and clean them thoroughly.
- Combine the cleaned flowers and leaves in a clean glass jar, and pack them tightly to ensure maximum surface area exposure.
- Cover the jar with a lid and store it in a cool, dark place for 2-6 weeks, allowing the herbal mixture to steep in a solvent like 80% ethanol or vodka.
- After the steeping period, strain the liquid mixture through a cheesecloth or a coffee filter into another clean glass container, discarding the solids.
- Store the resulting Hypericum perforatum tincture in a cool, dark place, away from children and pets, to maintain its potency and shelf life.
Capsule
Hypericum perforatum capsule is used to treat mild to moderate depression and anxiety.
This preparation is very commonly used as a natural remedy. One of the most common effects of taking Hypericum perforatum capsule is improved mood. The capsule is made from the flowers, leaves and stems of the Hypericum perforatum plant, also known as St John's Wort.
The process of making this capsule is moderately difficult due to the need for careful harvesting and drying of the plant material to preserve its active ingredients.
Below you find a 5-step quick procedure to make effective medicinal Hypericum perforatum capsule.
- Gather fresh flowers, leaves, and stems of Hypericum perforatum from a trusted source and dry them thoroughly.
- Grind the dried flowers, leaves, and stems into a fine powder using a coffee grinder or mortar and pestle.
- Mix the powdered Hypericum perforatum with a suitable capsule filler, such as silicon dioxide, to facilitate capsule formation.
- Fill empty gelatin capsules with the Hypericum perforatum mixture using a capsule filling machine or a small spoon.
- Seal the filled capsules and store them in a cool, dark place until ready for use.
Salve
Hypericum perforatum salve is a topical preparation used to treat various conditions, including burns, wounds, bruises, insect bites, muscle pain, rheumatism, sprains, and varicose veins.
It's a common herbal remedy due to its effectiveness. The common effect of Hypericum perforatum salve is its ability to reduce inflammation and promote healing. The salve is typically made from the leaves, flowers, and stems of the Hypericum perforatum plant.
While it requires some knowledge and skills to create, the process of making Hypericum perforatum salve is considered moderately difficult, requiring proper preparation and handling of the plant materials.
Below you find an image of Hypericum perforatum salve.
Below you find a 5-step quick procedure to make effective medicinal Hypericum perforatum salve.
- Gather fresh Hypericum perforatum leaves, flowers, and stems, and clean them thoroughly.
- Dry the collected plant material using a food dehydrator, oven, or air drying method.
- Combine 1 cup of dried Hypericum perforatum leaves, flowers, and stems in a large pot and cover them with 2 cups of carrier oil, such as olive or coconut oil.
- Simmer the mixture over low heat for 2-3 hours, then strain the liquid through a cheesecloth or a coffee filter into a clean container.
- Mix the strained liquid with beeswax and any additional desired ingredients, such as essential oils, and heat the mixture until the beeswax melts to create a smooth salve.
Tea
Hypericum perforatum tea is used to treat various conditions, including rheumatism, anxiety, depression, insomnia, migraine, premenstrual syndrome (PMS), wounds, and fever.
It is a widely used herbal preparation, commonly found in health food stores and online. One of the most notable effects of Hypericum perforatum tea is its ability to cause drowsiness and sedation, which can be beneficial for individuals with insomnia. The tea is typically made by steeping the flowers, leaves, and stems of the Hypericum perforatum plant in hot water.
Preparing the tea is relatively simple, as it requires only the plant material and hot water, making it accessible to those looking for a natural remedy.
Below you find an image of Hypericum perforatum tea.
Below you find a 5-step quick procedure to make effective medicinal Hypericum perforatum tea.
- Gather fresh or dried flowers, leaves, and stems of Hypericum perforatum, also known as St. John's Wort, for the herbal tea.
- Rinse the gathered Hypericum perforatum parts with cold water to remove any dirt or debris.
- Combine 1 part of the cleaned Hypericum perforatum flowers, leaves, and stems in a large infuser or tea strainer.
- Steep the Hypericum perforatum mixture in boiling water for 5-7 minutes to allow the herbs to release their medicinal properties.
- Strain the tea and discard the solids, then serve the Hypericum perforatum herbal tea hot or allow it to cool for a warm or iced tea.
What are the possible side effects of Hypericum perforatum if used improperly?
The most common side effects Hypericum perforatum gives people when used improperly are listed below, along with a brief explanation.
- Exacerbate: Hypericum perforatum exacerbates bleeding disorders, such as hemophilia and thrombocytopenia.
- Aggravate: St. John's Wort (Hypericum perforatum) exacerbates serotonin syndrome when combined with certain medications.
- Induce: Photosensitivity, a condition where skin becomes abnormally sensitive to sunlight, leading to an increased risk of sunburn and blistering.
- Trigger: Hypomania or manic episodes in individuals with bipolar disorder
- Enhance: Increased risk of serotonin syndrome and other adverse interactions with certain medications, particularly MAOIs and SSRIs.
- Worsen: Increased risk of serotonin syndrome, especially when combined with other medications that increase serotonin levels.
- Amplify: Increases the effect of other medications
- Elicit: Stimulation of neurotransmitter release
- Provoke: Increases aggression, hostility, or irritability.
- Precipitate: Formation of calcium oxalate crystals in the urine, a sign of kidney damage
What are the precautions to take before using Hypericum perforatum medicinally?
The precautions to take before using Hypericum perforatum medicinally are to consult a doctor before use, especially if you have a history of liver or kidney disease, as they may interact with the plant's hepatotoxic compounds.
Follow recommended dosage to avoid adverse effects, as high doses can cause gastrointestinal upset and allergic reactions. Avoid use during pregnancy, as it may stimulate uterine contractions and affect fetal development. Monitor blood sugar levels, as Hypericum perforatum may lower blood sugar and interact with diabetes medications.
Additionally, be cautious when using it with antidepressants, MAOIs, and store it in a cool, dry place to maintain potency, and report any side effects to your doctor during breastfeeding.
The most important precautions you must take before using Hypericum perforatum for medicinal purposes are listed below, along with a brief explanation.
- Consult A Doctor Before Use: Use of Hypericum perforatum may interact with medications including antidepressants, blood thinners, and antiseizure medications, and can exacerbate conditions such as liver or kidney disease, or interact with certain herbal supplements.
- Follow Recommended Dosage: Hypericum perforatum should be taken at prescribed dosages to minimize risk of adverse effects.
- Avoid Use During Pregnancy: Hypericum perforatum contains hypericin, which has been shown to be teratogenic and embryotoxic.
- Avoid Use During Breastfeeding: Hypericum perforatum may pass into breast milk and potentially harm the infant.
- Monitor Blood Sugar Levels: Hypericum perforatum may lower blood sugar levels and interact with diabetes medications.
- Be Cautious With Liver Or Kidney Disease: Hypericum perforatum may worsen liver or kidney disease due to its hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic properties.
- Avoid Use With Antidepressants: Combining Hypericum perforatum with antidepressants increases risk of serotonin toxicity.
- Be Cautious With Maois: Hypericum perforatum interacts with monoamine oxidase inhibitors, potentially causing serotonin syndrome.
- Report Any Side Effects: Monitor patients for photosensitivity, gastrointestinal disturbances, and increased risk of bleeding.
- Store In A Cool, Dry Place: Hypericum perforatum should be stored in a cool, dry environment to inhibit degradation and growth of mold.
Are there scientific studies that prove the medical effectiveness of Hypericum perforatum?
Yes, there are several scientific studies that prove the medicianl effectiveness of Hypericum perforatum. Here are some studies that are worthy of notice.
According to a study published in the "Indian journal of experimental biology", Hypericum perforatum showed significant anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity at doses of 100 and 200 mg/kg. This suggests that it may be effective in reducing inflammation and pain in various conditions. Additionally, the study found that Hypericum perforatum potentiated the effects of other anti-inflammatory and analgesic medications, indicating potential synergistic benefits when used in combination.
In another study published by "Phytomedicine : international journal of phytotherapy and phytopharmacology", the crude ethanol extract of Hypericum perforatum exhibited significant stimulatory and antidepressant effects on the CNS, prolonging sleep by more than 25 minutes. The extract also showed strong analgesic activity, reducing abdominal stretching induced by acetic acid by nearly 50%. Additionally, the extract demonstrated spasmolytic activity, significantly reducing intestine motility.
A different research published by Phytomedicine: international journal of phytotherapy and phytopharmacology, the ingestion of Hypericum perforatum may impart additional secondary health benefits, including the inhibition of oxidative stress and inflammation. The study suggests that the antioxidant phytochemicals in Hypericum perforatum reach their maximum plasma concentration in the range of 1.6-2.3 hours after ingestion, coinciding with the attenuation of oxidative stress and inflammation. Administering Hypericum perforatum 2 hours before meals is recommended to provide optimal secondary health benefits associated with the inhibition of postprandial stress.
