Elephant apple

Names and Synonyms

Common Names

• Elephant Apple
• dillenia
• elephant-apple

Scientific Names

Accepted name

Synonyms

• Dillenia elongata
• Dillenia indica f. elongata

Regional and Traditional Names

Sources: Wikidata, Catalogue of Life

Taxonomical Classification

This plant belongs to the kingdom Plantae and is classified under the phylum Streptophyta within the class Equisetopsida. It is further organized into the subclass Magnoliidae and the order Dilleniales, falling under the family Dilleniaceae. Finally, its taxonomic identity is defined by the genus Dillenia.

Sources: The World Checklist of Vascular Plants (WCVP)

Distribution

This plant exhibits a wide geographical distribution spanning across several tropical regions. In West-Central Tropical Africa, it can be found specifically around the Gulf of Guinea Islands. Its presence extends significantly into the Western Indian Ocean, where it inhabits Comoros, Mauritius, and Réunion. Additionally, the species is located within the South-Central regions of China. Together, these locations highlight the diverse environments where the plant thrives.

Sources: The World Checklist of Vascular Plants (WCVP)

Botanical Identification

Ecology

The ecology of Dillenia indica is characterized by its preference for lowland environments, typically flourishing in tropical and subtropical habitats such as riverbanks, moist forest edges, and riparian zones. This species occupies a specific altitudinal niche, ranging from sea level up to a maximum elevation of 1000 m AMSL. Within its natural distribution, it maintains a mean elevation of approximately 250 m AMSL, where the humidity and soil moisture levels are optimal for its growth. Its presence is often indicative of well-drained but moist soils, allowing it to thrive in the diverse ecological strata of wet evergreen or semi-evergreen forests.

Elevational range max:

1000 m AMSL

Elevational range mean:

250 m AMSL

Elevational range min:

0 m AMSL

Life history

The life history of Dillenia indica is characterized by its existence as a perennial plant, ensuring a long-term presence within its natural ecosystem. As a phanerophyte, it maintains its photosynthetic organs on elevated stems, contributing to its structural dominance in its habitat. The plant exhibits an evergreen deciduousness, meaning it retains its foliage throughout the year, providing continuous vegetative cover and stability. This combination of a perennial lifecycle and a phanerophyte life form allows the species to establish a robust and enduring biological presence.

Deciduousness :

evergreen

Life form :

phanerophyte

Lifecycle :

perennial

Morphology

The morphology of Dillenia indica is characterized by its growth form as a large, woody tree that functions as a self-supporting structure. Reaching a mean and maximum plant height of approximately 20 m, the species exhibits a robust, independent life cycle, categorized as an independent organism rather than a parasite. It is a purely terrestrial plant, lacking any aquatic, semiaquatic, or epiphytic tendencies, such as being a holoepiphyte or hemiepiphyte. Furthermore, it does not exhibit climbing habits, as it is strictly self-supporting rather than acting as a liana or vine.

Aquatic :

terrestrial

Climber :

self-supporting

Epiphyte :

terrestrial

Growth form :

tree

Parasite :

independent

Plant height mean:

20 m

Woodiness :

woody

Physiology

The physiology of Dillenia indica is characterized by a C3 photosynthetic pathway, which dictates its carbon fixation processes and metabolic efficiency. The vegetative structure is defined by significant morphological variation in its foliage, where leaf dimensions are highly dynamic. The leaf length typically ranges from a minimum of 15 cm to a mean of 27.5 cm, reaching a maximum extent of 40 cm. Complementing this length, the leaf width fluctuates between a minimum of 7 cm and a maximum of 14 cm. Furthermore, the plant does not function as a nitrogen fixer, relying instead on the availability of nitrogen within the soil substrate for its nutritional requirements and growth.

Leaf length max:

40 cm

Leaf length mean:

27.5 cm

Leaf length min:

15 cm

Leaf width max:

14 cm

Leaf width min:

7 cm

Nitrogen fixer :

no

Photosynthetic pathway :

C3

Reproduction

The reproduction of Dillenia indica is characterized by a complex interplay of biotic pollination and specialized dispersal mechanisms. The flowering stage features large, prominent blooms with a flower length ranging from a minimum of 12 cm to a maximum of 20 cm. The pollination syndrome is primarily biotic, specifically involving insects such as bees, which play a critical role in the fertilization process. Following successful pollination, the plant produces fleshy fruits, indicating a fleshy fruit dryness profile. The resulting seeds are relatively uniform in their physical properties, with a mean, minimum, and maximum seed mass recorded at 0.02165 g and a consistent seed volume of 100 mm³. For the spread of the next generation, the species utilizes a hydrochorous dispersal syndrome, relying on water to transport its seeds to new locations.

Dispersal syndrome :

hydrochorous

Flower length max:

20 cm

Flower length min:

12 cm

Fruit dryness :

fleshy

Pollination syndrome :

insect

Pollination syndrome :

bee

Pollination syndrome :

biotic

Seed mass mean:

0.02165 g

Seed volume max:

100 mm³

Sources: Global Inventory of Floras and Traits (GIFT)

Plant Parts

Dillenia indica has 3 reported plant parts identified across 6 scientific publications and several other databases that are studied for medicinal purposes. The most consistently reported plant part include fruit, flower, leaf.

Fruit

1. PeerJ
2. Journal of diabetes research
3. Archives of microbiology
4. Pharmaceutical biology

Flower

1. Microbial pathogenesis

Leaf

1. Journal of natural medicines

Chemicals

Dillenia indica has 18 reported phytochemicals identified across 6 scientific publications and several other databases. The most consistently reported chemicals include naringenin, Flavonoids, betulinic acid, kaempferol, Betulin.

naringenin

1. Journal of ethnopharmacology
2. Frontiers in bioscience (Landmark edition)
3. Chemistry & biodiversity

Flavonoids

1. Chinese herbal medicines
2. Chemistry & biodiversity

betulinic acid

1. Dr. Duke
2. Pharmaceutical biology

kaempferol

1. Journal of ethnopharmacology
2. Chemistry & biodiversity

Betulin

1. Dr. Duke

CATECHIN

1. Journal of ethnopharmacology

Caffeoylmalic Acid

1. Chemistry & biodiversity

Epicatechin

1. Journal of ethnopharmacology

Flavonoid

1. PeerJ

SYRINGIC ACID

1. Journal of ethnopharmacology

Activities

Dillenia indica has 30 reported activities identified across 6 scientific publications and several other databases. The most consistently reported activities include Antioxidant, Antidiabetic, Antibacterial, Anticancer, Antimicrobial.

Antioxidant

1. PeerJ
2. Microbial pathogenesis
3. Current pharmaceutical design
4. Chinese herbal medicines
5. Archives of microbiology

Antidiabetic

1. PeerJ
2. Journal of diabetes research
3. Chinese herbal medicines
4. Chemistry & biodiversity

Antibacterial

1. Dr. Duke
2. Microbial pathogenesis
3. Archives of microbiology

Anticancer

1. Dr. Duke
2. Chinese herbal medicines

Antimicrobial

1. Chinese herbal medicines
2. Chemistry & biodiversity

Antinociceptive

1. Dr. Duke
2. Chemistry & biodiversity

Antiproliferative

1. Current pharmaceutical design
2. Chemistry & biodiversity

Cytotoxic

1. Dr. Duke
2. Journal of natural medicines

Anthelmintic

1. Dr. Duke

AntiHIV

1. Dr. Duke

Conditions

Dillenia indica has 22 reported investigations on conditions identified across 6 scientific publications and several other databases. The most consistently reported conditions include breast cancer, cancer, Apoptosis, anti-oxidant, antioxidant.

Breast cancer

1. Chinese herbal medicines
2. Journal of natural medicines

Cancer

1. Current pharmaceutical design
2. Chinese herbal medicines

Apoptosis

1. Frontiers in bioscience (Landmark edition)

Anti-oxidant

1. 3 Biotech

Antioxidant

1. Heliyon

Apoptosis

1. Frontiers in bioscience (Landmark edition)

Asthma

1. Journal of ethnopharmacology

Colon cancer

1. Journal of natural medicines

Colorectal cancer

1. Chinese herbal medicines

Diabetes mellitus

1. Journal of ethnopharmacology

Preparations

Dillenia indica has 14 reported preparations identified across 6 scientific publications and several other databases. The most consistently reported preparations include Methanolic Fruit Extract, aqueous ethanolic extract (AEE), buccal patches, emulgel, ethyl acetate extract (EAE).

Methanolic fruit extract

1. Frontiers in bioscience (Landmark edition)

Aqueous ethanolic extract (aee)

1. Pharmaceutical biology

Buccal patches

1. Current drug discovery technologies

Emulgel

1. Current drug discovery technologies

Ethyl acetate extract (eae)

1. Pharmaceutical biology

Extracts

1. Frontiers in plant science

Flower extract

1. Microbial pathogenesis

Fruit powder

1. Journal of diabetes research

Leaf

1. Journal of natural medicines

Methanolic crude extracts

1. PeerJ