kaffir lime

Names and Synonyms

Common Names

• kaffir-lime
• makrut-lime
• papeda
• Celebes papeda
• Kaffir lime
• Mauritius papeda
• kansi
• Makrut Lime
• Thai Lime
• Porcupine Orange
• Thai Bai Makrut

Scientific Names

Accepted name

Synonyms

• Citrus pennivesiculata
• Citrus westeri
• Citrus macroptera var. southwickii
• Citrus celebica var. southwickii
• Citrus torosa
• Citrus tuberoides
• Citrus ventricosa
• Citrus vitiensis
• Citrus auraria
• Citrus × aurantium hystrix
• Citrus × aurantium var. saponacea
• Citrus celebica
• Citrus hystrix var. annamensis
• Citrus hystrix var. balincolong
• Citrus hystrix var. boholensis
• Citrus hystrix var. micrantha
• Citrus hystrix var. microcarpa
• Citrus hystrix var. southwickii
• Citrus hystrix var. torosa
• Citrus hyalopulpa
• Citrus kerrii
• Citrus macroptera
• Citrus macroptera var. annamensis
• Citrus macroptera var. boholensis
• Citrus macroptera var. combara
• Citrus macroptera var. kerrii
• Citrus macroptera var. micrantha
• Citrus megaloxycarpa
• Citrus megaloxycarpa var. pennivesiculata
• Citrus micrantha
• Citrus micrantha var. balincolong
• Citrus micrantha var. microcarpa
• Citrus southwickii
• Citrus papuana
• Citrus papeda
• Citrus boholensis
• Citrus balincolong
• Citrus × bergamia var. unguentaria
• Citrus × bergamia var. ventricosa
• Citrus combara
• Citrus combara var. boholensis
• Citrus combara var. macroptera
• Citrus combara var. micrantha
• Fortunella sagittifolia
• Papeda rumphii

Regional and Traditional Names

Sources: Wikidata, Catalogue of Life

Taxonomical Classification

This plant belongs to the kingdom Plantae within the phylum Streptophyta and is classified under the class Equisetopsida. As a member of the subclass Magnoliidae and the order Sapindales, it falls into the family Rutaceae. Ultimately, it is identified by the genus Citrus.

Sources: The World Checklist of Vascular Plants (WCVP)

Distribution

This plant is widely distributed across several specific regions in Asia. In China, its presence is noted in both the South-Central and Southeast territories. Moving towards the Indian Subcontinent, the species can be found growing in the Assam region. It also inhabits the country of Bangladesh within the same subcontinent. Finally, its range extends to the East Himalaya area of the Indian Subcontinent.

Sources: The World Checklist of Vascular Plants (WCVP)

Botanical Identification

Ecology

The ecology of Citrus hystrix is fundamentally defined by its adaptation to the dense, humid environments of the tropical rain forest. Thriving in these high-moisture ecosystems, the species relies on the consistent precipitation and heavy canopy cover characteristic of rainforest biomes to maintain its physiological processes. Within these habitats, the plant occupies specific niches where nutrient-rich, well-drained soils and high ambient humidity support its growth patterns. The complex structural layers of the rain forest provide a unique microclimate that regulates temperature and protects the plant from extreme fluctuations, while the surrounding biodiversity facilitates essential ecological interactions, including pollination and seed dispersal, which are critical for its survival and distribution throughout its natural range.

Habitat :

rain forest

Life history

The life history of Citrus hystrix is characterized by its status as a perennial plant, allowing it to persist through multiple growing seasons and establish a long-term presence in its environment. As an evergreen species, it maintains its foliage throughout the year, providing a continuous canopy of dark green, double-lobed leaves that do not shed seasonally. This combination of a perennial lifecycle and evergreen habit ensures that the plant remains biologically active and structurally intact across varying temporal cycles, supporting its continuous growth and reproductive potential.

Deciduousness :

evergreen

Lifecycle :

perennial

Morphology

The morphology of Citrus hystrix is characterized by its growth form as a woody tree, reaching an average plant height of approximately 4 m. As a terrestrial species, it grows in non-aquatic environments and functions as an independent organism, neither acting as a parasite nor an epiphyte. The plant is self-supporting in its structure, meaning it does not possess the climbing habits of a liana or vine, instead maintaining a sturdy, upright tree habit.

Aquatic :

terrestrial

Climber :

self-supporting

Epiphyte :

terrestrial

Growth form :

tree

Parasite :

independent

Plant height mean:

4 m

Woodiness :

woody

Physiology

The physiology of Citrus hystrix is characterized by a C3 photosynthetic pathway, which involves the direct fixation of carbon dioxide via the enzyme RuBisCO during the Calvin cycle, a common metabolic strategy for woody perennials in temperate to tropical environments. This plant does not exhibit succulence, lacking the specialized thickened, fleshy tissues designed for significant water storage typically found in xerophytic species. Furthermore, Citrus hystrix is not a nitrogen fixer, meaning it does not possess a symbiotic relationship with nitrogen-fixing bacteria to convert atmospheric nitrogen into usable forms, and instead relies on the uptake of nitrates and ammonium from the soil through its root system.

Nitrogen fixer :

no

Photosynthetic pathway :

C3

Succulence :

no

Reproduction

The reproduction of Citrus hystrix is facilitated through a combination of diverse dispersal syndromes that ensure the propagation of its progeny across various environments. The primary mechanism of seed movement is endozoochorous, where animals consume the fleshy, aromatic fruit and subsequently deposit the seeds in new locations via their feces. Additionally, the species exhibits an unspecialized dispersal strategy, allowing it to utilize multiple pathways for colonization. While the plant can undergo autochorous processes through natural fruit drop, it is also characterized by anthropochorous dispersal, where human activity—such as cultivation, trade, and accidental transport—plays a significant role in its geographic distribution. This multifaceted approach to dispersal, encompassing both natural biological vectors and human-mediated movement, ensures the effective spread and establishment of the species.

Dispersal syndrome :

anthropochorous

Sources: Global Inventory of Floras and Traits (GIFT)

Plant Parts

Citrus hystrix has 3 reported plant parts identified across 6 scientific publications and several other databases that are studied for medicinal purposes. The most consistently reported plant part include fruit, leaf, stem.

Fruit

1. Natural product research
2. Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine : eCAM
3. Chemistry & biodiversity

Leaf

1. Plants (Basel, Switzerland)
2. Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine : eCAM

Stem

1. Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine : eCAM

Chemicals

Citrus hystrix has 27 reported phytochemicals identified across 6 scientific publications and several other databases. The most consistently reported chemicals include CITRONELLAL, BETA-CARYOPHYLLENE, LIMONENE, Linalool, 3,7-Dimethyloct-6-enal.

CITRONELLAL

1. Medicines (Basel, Switzerland)
2. Microbial pathogenesis
3. Biomedicine & pharmacotherapy = Biomedecine & pharmacotherapie

BETA-CARYOPHYLLENE

1. Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine : eCAM
2. Natural product communications

LIMONENE

1. Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine : eCAM
2. Natural product communications

Linalool

1. Medicines (Basel, Switzerland)
2. Natural product communications

3,7-Dimethyloct-6-enal

1. Microbial pathogenesis

BETA-PINENE

1. Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine : eCAM

Citral

1. Biomedicine & pharmacotherapy = Biomedecine & pharmacotherapie

Collagenase

1. Journal of food and drug analysis

Dodecyl acrylate

1. Natural product communications

Elastase

1. Journal of food and drug analysis

Activities

Citrus hystrix has 13 reported activities identified across 6 scientific publications and several other databases. The most consistently reported activities include Antimicrobial, Antioxidant, Antiacetylcholinesterase, Antidepressant, Antidiabetic.

Antimicrobial

1. Chemistry & biodiversity
2. Medicines (Basel, Switzerland)
3. Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine : eCAM

Antioxidant

1. Biomedicine & pharmacotherapy = Biomedecine & pharmacotherapie
2. Plants (Basel, Switzerland)
3. Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine : eCAM

Antiacetylcholinesterase

1. Natural product research

Antidepressant

1. Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine : eCAM

Antidiabetic

1. Natural product research

Antifeedant

1. Medicines (Basel, Switzerland)

Antiproliferative

1. Plants (Basel, Switzerland)

Anxiolytic

1. Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine : eCAM

Cardioprotective

1. Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine : eCAM

Cytotoxic

1. Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine : eCAM

Conditions

Citrus hystrix has 18 reported investigations on conditions identified across 6 scientific publications and several other databases. The most consistently reported conditions include Acinetobacter baumannii, Acne vulgaris, Dental Plaque, Escherichia coli, Gingivitis.

Acinetobacter baumannii

1. Journal of intercultural ethnopharmacology

Acne vulgaris

1. Chemistry & biodiversity

Dental plaque

1. Plants (Basel, Switzerland)

Escherichia coli

1. Journal of intercultural ethnopharmacology

Gingivitis

1. Plants (Basel, Switzerland)

Hepatitis

1. Biomedicine & pharmacotherapy = Biomedecine & pharmacotherapie

Pseudomonas aeruginosa

1. Journal of intercultural ethnopharmacology

Staphylococcus aureus

1. Journal of intercultural ethnopharmacology

Acetylcholinesterase

1. Journal of food and drug analysis

Acne

1. Chemistry & biodiversity

Preparations

Citrus hystrix has 7 reported preparations identified across 6 scientific publications and several other databases. The most consistently reported preparations include essential oil, C. hystrix peel extracts, Essential oils, Kaffir lime oil (KLO), ethanolic peel and pulp extracts.

Essential oil

1. Chemistry & biodiversity
2. Plants (Basel, Switzerland)

C. hystrix peel extracts

1. Chemistry & biodiversity

Essential oils

1. 3 Biotech

Kaffir lime oil (klo)

1. Microbial pathogenesis

Ethanolic peel and pulp extracts

1. Biomedicine & pharmacotherapy = Biomedecine & pharmacotherapie

Fruit peel

1. Natural product research

Plant extracts

1. Plants (Basel, Switzerland)