Indian pennywort

Names and Synonyms

Common Names

• Asiatic pennywort
• Indian pennywort
• gotu kola
• marsh pennywort
• pennyweed
• sheeprot
• thankuni
• Asian Pennywort
• Bubbles
• Ibdiab Pennywort
• Little Pig's Ears
• Marsh Pepperwort
• Urban Marsh Pepperwort
• coinleaf
• pennywort

Scientific Names

Accepted name

Synonyms

• Centella ulugurensis
• Centella asiatica var. crispata
• Hydrocotyle artensis
• Glyceria asiatica
• Glyceria triflora
• Trisanthus cochinchinensis
• Centella boninensis
• Centella asiatica var. cristata
• Hydrocotyle asiatica var. crispata
• Centella hirtella
• Centella asiatica var. boninensis
• Hydrocotyle abyssinica
• Centella asiatica f. crispata
• Hydrocotyle asiatica var. monantha
• Hydrocotyle brasiliensis
• Hydrocotyle brevipedata
• Hydrocotyle brevipes
• Hydrocotyle dentata
• Hydrocotyle ficarifolia
• Hydrocotyle ficarioides
• Hydrocotyle hebecarpa
• Hydrocotyle inaequipes
• Hydrocotyle indivisa
• Hydrocotyle lunata
• Hydrocotyle lurida
• Hydrocotyle nummularioides
• Hydrocotyle sarmentosa
• Hydrocotyle sylvicola
• Hydrocotyle thunbergiana
• Hydrocotyle ulugurensis
• Chondrocarpus triflorus
• Chondrocarpus asiaticus

Regional and Traditional Names

Sources: Wikidata, Catalogue of Life

Taxonomical Classification

This plant belongs to the kingdom Plantae and the phylum Streptophyta, falling under the class Equisetopsida and subclass Magnoliidae. Within the order Apiales, it is classified under the family Apiaceae. Specifically, it is identified by the genus Centella.

Sources: The World Checklist of Vascular Plants (WCVP)

Distribution

This plant exhibits a wide geographical distribution across several distinct regions. Within Macaronesia, its presence can be noted in Cape Verde. The species is also widely distributed throughout West Tropical Africa. Specifically, it is found in nations such as Benin, Burkina, and Gambia. Additionally, the plant's range extends into Ghana within the same West Tropical African zone.

Sources: The World Checklist of Vascular Plants (WCVP)

Botanical Identification

Ecology

The ecology of Centella asiatica is characterized by a broad altitudinal distribution, ranging from sea level (0 m AMSL) to a maximum elevation of 2610 m AMSL, with a mean elevational range of approximately 1050 m AMSL. This species demonstrates significant ecological plasticity, colonizing diverse environments such as dry forests and halophytic vegetation. Additionally, it is frequently found within dense secondary shrublands and ruderal vegetation, indicating its ability to thrive in disturbed or transitional habitats.

Elevational range max:

2610 m AMSL

Elevational range mean:

1050 m AMSL

Elevational range min:

0 m AMSL

Habitat :

dry forest, halophytic vegetation, dense secondary shrub and ruderal vegetation

Genetics

The genetics of Centella asiatica are characterized by a complex chromosomal architecture and specific reproductive stability. The species exhibits a varied chromosomal profile, with observed chromosome numbers documented at 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, and 33, reflecting a degree of genomic plasticity within different populations or cultivars. Despite this numerical variation, the plant is primarily characterized by a diploid ploidy level of 2, indicating that the fundamental genetic structure is based on two sets of chromosomes. This combination of a diploid baseline with fluctuating chromosome counts suggests a dynamic genome that may be influenced by environmental factors or evolutionary divergence across its geographical distribution.

Chromosome number :

17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 33

Ploidy :

2

Life history

The life history of Centella asiatica is characterized by its nature as a perennial plant, allowing it to persist through multiple growing seasons. It primarily functions as a hemicryptophyte, with its perennial buds located at or near the soil surface, protected by leaf litter or the substrate. In terms of its structural growth habit, it can also be classified as a chamaephyte, maintaining a relatively low-growing profile. Throughout its existence, the plant maintains an evergreen status, retaining its foliage continuously rather than undergoing seasonal shedding.

Deciduousness :

evergreen

Life form :

chamaephyte

Life form :

hemicryptophyte

Lifecycle :

perennial

Morphology

The morphology of Centella asiatica is characterized by its growth form as a non-woody herb, which functions as a self-supporting plant rather than a liana or vine. It exhibits a prostrate shoot orientation, spreading across the substrate as an independent organism that is neither a parasite nor an epiphyte, maintaining a strictly terrestrial lifestyle. The plant typically maintains a low profile, with a height ranging from a minimum of 0.05 m to a maximum of 0.4 m, resulting in a mean plant height of approximately 0.25 m.

Aquatic :

terrestrial

Climber :

self-supporting

Epiphyte :

terrestrial

Growth form :

herb

Parasite :

independent

Plant height max:

0.4 m

Plant height mean:

0.25 m

Plant height min:

0.05 m

Shoot orientation :

prostrate

Woodiness :

non-woody

Physiology

The physiology of Centella asiatica is characterized by specific morphological dimensions and metabolic traits that define its growth patterns. The leaves exhibit significant variability in size, with a minimum length of 1 cm and a mean length of 1.9 cm, reaching a maximum length of up to 6 cm. Correspondingly, leaf width fluctuates between a minimum of 1 cm and a mean of 1.3 cm, with a maximum width of 5 cm. In terms of water storage and tissue structure, the plant does not exhibit succulence, maintaining standard non-succulent leaf tissue. Furthermore, its metabolic profile indicates that it is not a nitrogen fixer, relying instead on external nutrient availability in the soil rather than symbiotic nitrogen-fixing processes.

Leaf length max:

6 cm

Leaf length mean:

1.9 cm

Leaf length min:

1 cm

Leaf width max:

5 cm

Leaf width mean:

1.3 cm

Leaf width min:

1 cm

Nitrogen fixer :

no

Succulence :

no

Reproduction

The reproduction of Centella asiatica involves both sexual and asexual mechanisms, with asexual reproduction being present to facilitate its spread. During the sexual phase, the plant produces small, pink-colored flowers characterized by a width ranging from a minimum of 0.15 cm to a maximum of 0.25 cm. The flowering period is concentrated, with both the start and end of the flowering season occurring in July. These flowers rely on biotic pollination syndromes, specifically utilizing insects as the primary pollinators. Once fertilization occurs—a process where self-fertilization is present—the plant develops fruits that are quite small, with a mean length of 0.2775 cm (ranging from 0.21 cm to 0.3 cm) and a mean width of 1.91 cm (ranging from 0.22 cm to 3.6 cm). The resulting seeds are minute, maintaining a consistent mean, minimum, and maximum mass of 0.001501 g. The dispersal of these seeds is categorized as autochorous, meaning the plant employs an autochorous dispersal syndrome to distribute its offspring.

Dispersal syndrome :

autochorous

Flower colour :

pink

Flower width max:

0.25 cm

Flower width min:

0.15 cm

Flowering time :

Jul

Fruit length max:

0.3 cm

Fruit length mean:

0.2775 cm

Fruit length min:

0.21 cm

Fruit width max:

3.6 cm

Fruit width mean:

1.91 cm

Fruit width min:

0.22 cm

Pollination syndrome :

insect

Pollination syndrome :

biotic

Reproduction asexual :

present

Seed mass mean:

0.001501 g

Self fertilization :

present

Sources: Global Inventory of Floras and Traits (GIFT)

Plant Parts

Centella asiatica has 3 reported plant parts identified across 35 scientific publications and several other databases that are studied for medicinal purposes. The most consistently reported plant part include leaf, stem, root.

Leaf

1. Advances in pharmacological and pharmaceutical sciences
2. Heliyon
3. PloS one
4. Phytomedicine : international journal of phytotherapy and phytopharmacology
5. Zhongguo Zhong yao za zhi = Zhongguo zhongyao zazhi = China journal of Chinese materia medica

Stem

1. PloS one
2. Zhongguo Zhong yao za zhi = Zhongguo zhongyao zazhi = China journal of Chinese materia medica
3. Basic and clinical neuroscience
4. Biomolecules

Root

1. 3 Biotech
2. Journal of biotechnology
3. Plants (Basel, Switzerland)

Chemicals

Centella asiatica has 208 reported phytochemicals identified across 35 scientific publications and several other databases. The most consistently reported chemicals include Asiaticoside, Asiatic acid, Madecassoside, Madecassic acid, Flavonoids.

Asiaticoside

1. Dr. Duke
2. Journal of cellular and molecular medicine
3. Pharmaceutical biology
4. Acta pharmaceutica (Zagreb, Croatia)
5. Phytochemistry

Asiatic acid

1. Dr. Duke
2. Journal of cellular and molecular medicine
3. Journal of ethnopharmacology
4. Journal of Asian natural products research
5. Pharmaceutical biology

Madecassoside

1. Dr. Duke
2. Journal of cellular and molecular medicine
3. Pharmaceutical biology
4. Acta pharmaceutica (Zagreb, Croatia)
5. Scientific reports

Madecassic acid

1. Dr. Duke
2. Journal of cellular and molecular medicine
3. Journal of ethnopharmacology
4. Pharmaceutical biology
5. Acta pharmaceutica (Zagreb, Croatia)

Flavonoids

1. PloS one
2. Plants (Basel, Switzerland)
3. Neurochemical research
4. Chemistry & biodiversity
5. Phytochemistry reviews : proceedings of the Phytochemical Society of Europe

Saponins

1. Dr. Duke
2. Plants (Basel, Switzerland)
3. Gene
4. Indian journal of pharmaceutical sciences
5. Journal of plant physiology

triterpenoids

1. Biomedical chromatography : BMC
2. Chemistry & biodiversity
3. Ultrasonics sonochemistry
4. Plants (Basel, Switzerland)
5. Planta medica

kaempferol

1. Dr. Duke
2. Phytochemical analysis : PCA
3. Chemistry & biodiversity
4. Drug metabolism and personalized therapy
5. Frontiers in pharmacology

quercetin

1. Dr. Duke
2. Phytochemical analysis : PCA
3. International journal of food sciences and nutrition
4. Drug metabolism and personalized therapy
5. Molecules (Basel, Switzerland)

Tannins

1. Indian journal of pharmacology
2. Plants (Basel, Switzerland)
3. Neurochemical research
4. Journal of basic and clinical physiology and pharmacology
5. Phytochemical analysis : PCA

Activities

Centella asiatica has 595 reported activities identified across 35 scientific publications and several other databases. The most consistently reported activities include Antioxidant, Neuroprotective, Antimicrobial, Cytotoxic, Antibacterial.

Antioxidant

1. Dr. Duke
2. Journal of ethnopharmacology
3. International journal of molecular sciences
4. Talanta
5. Scientific reports

Neuroprotective

1. Dr. Duke
2. Journal of cellular and molecular medicine
3. Phytomedicine : international journal of phytotherapy and phytopharmacology
4. Talanta
5. Behavioural brain research

Antimicrobial

1. Metabolites
2. Progress in the chemistry of organic natural products
3. Biomaterials advances
4. Phytomedicine : international journal of phytotherapy and phytopharmacology
5. Molecules (Basel, Switzerland)

Cytotoxic

1. Dr. Duke
2. Progress in the chemistry of organic natural products
3. Nutrition research and practice
4. Journal of ethnopharmacology
5. BMC complementary and alternative medicine

Antibacterial

1. Dr. Duke
2. Journal of cellular and molecular medicine
3. Journal of biomaterials science. Polymer edition
4. Biomaterials advances
5. BMC complementary and alternative medicine

Anxiolytic

1. Dr. Duke
2. Journal of cellular and molecular medicine
3. Annals of medicine
4. Phytochemistry reviews : proceedings of the Phytochemical Society of Europe
5. Phytotherapy research : PTR

Anticancer

1. Dr. Duke
2. Tissue & cell
3. Biomaterials advances
4. Biomedicine & pharmacotherapy = Biomedecine & pharmacotherapie

Antidiabetic

1. Dr. Duke
2. Nutrition research and practice
3. Journal of ethnopharmacology
4. Planta medica

Antitumor

1. Dr. Duke
2. Pakistan journal of pharmaceutical sciences
3. Zhongguo Zhong yao za zhi = Zhongguo zhongyao zazhi = China journal of Chinese materia medica
4. Journal of ethnopharmacology

Hepatoprotective

1. Dr. Duke
2. Journal of cellular and molecular medicine
3. Biomedical chromatography : BMC
4. Current drug research reviews

Conditions

Centella asiatica has 156 reported investigations on conditions identified across 35 scientific publications and several other databases. The most consistently reported conditions include wound healing, Alzheimer's disease, oxidative stress, inflammation, cancer.

Wound healing

1. Journal of ethnopharmacology
2. Pharmaceutical biology
3. Journal of experimental pharmacology
4. Nanotechnology
5. Journal of alternative and complementary medicine (New York, N.Y.)

Alzheimer's disease

1. Current neuropharmacology
2. Scientific reports
3. Current topics in medicinal chemistry
4. Molecules (Basel, Switzerland)
5. Phytotherapy research : PTR

Oxidative stress

1. Phytomedicine : international journal of phytotherapy and phytopharmacology
2. International journal of molecular sciences
3. Clinical and experimental pharmacology & physiology
4. Scientific reports
5. Toxicology mechanisms and methods

Inflammation

1. International journal of molecular sciences
2. Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine : eCAM
3. Pharmaceutics
4. Journal of ethnopharmacology
5. International journal of pharmaceutics

Cancer

1. Frontiers in pharmacology
2. Medical science monitor : international medical journal of experimental and clinical research
3. Anti-cancer agents in medicinal chemistry
4. Biomedicine & pharmacotherapy = Biomedecine & pharmacotherapie
5. BMC complementary and alternative medicine

Parkinson's disease

1. PloS one
2. Phytomedicine : international journal of phytotherapy and phytopharmacology
3. Phytotherapy research : PTR
4. Biological trace element research
5. CNS & neurological disorders drug targets

Memory

1. Journal of ethnopharmacology
2. Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine : eCAM
3. The Malaysian journal of medical sciences : MJMS
4. Neuroscience letters
5. Basic and clinical neuroscience

Neurodegenerative diseases

1. Advances in neurobiology
2. Annals of medicine
3. Brain sciences
4. Computers in biology and medicine
5. Pharmaceuticals (Basel, Switzerland)

Depression

1. Pharmaceutics
2. Behavioural brain research
3. Annals of medicine
4. Journal of clinical psychopharmacology
5. Zhong yao cai = Zhongyaocai = Journal of Chinese medicinal materials

Wounds

1. Infectious disorders drug targets
2. Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine : eCAM
3. Biomedicine & pharmacotherapy = Biomedecine & pharmacotherapie
4. Phytochemical analysis : PCA
5. Advances in experimental medicine and biology

Preparations

Centella asiatica has 118 reported preparations identified across 35 scientific publications and several other databases. The most consistently reported preparations include extracts, aqueous extract, CA extract, ethanolic extract, extract.

Extracts

1. Journal of pharmaceutical and biomedical analysis
2. Pharmaceutics
3. Phytochemistry reviews : proceedings of the Phytochemical Society of Europe
4. Journal of the science of food and agriculture
5. Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine : eCAM

Aqueous extract

1. PloS one
2. Clinical and experimental pharmacology & physiology
3. Indian journal of experimental biology
4. Pharmacology, biochemistry, and behavior
5. Molecular neurobiology

Ca extract

1. Chemistry & biodiversity
2. Advanced healthcare materials
3. The Medical journal of Malaysia
4. Basic and clinical neuroscience

Ethanolic extract

1. Advances in pharmacological and pharmaceutical sciences
2. Journal of basic and clinical physiology and pharmacology
3. Molecules (Basel, Switzerland)
4. The international journal of lower extremity wounds

Extract

1. Journal of ethnopharmacology
2. Hindustan antibiotics bulletin
3. Contact dermatitis

Methanol extract

1. Acta pharmaceutica (Zagreb, Croatia)
2. Tropical biomedicine
3. Journal of ethnopharmacology

Plant extracts

1. Parasitology research
2. Brain sciences
3. Plant science : an international journal of experimental plant biology

Water extract

1. Journal of ethnopharmacology
2. Neuroscience letters
3. Journal of Alzheimer's disease : JAD

Asiaticoside

1. Heliyon
2. Phytotherapy research : PTR

Centella asiatica extract

1. Zhongguo Zhong yao za zhi = Zhongguo zhongyao zazhi = China journal of Chinese materia medica
2. Annals of medicine